TECHNOLOGY 

AND 

INDUSTRIAL   EFFICIENCY 


Published   by  the 

Me  Grow-  Hill   BooI^L  Company 


\Succe.s.sons  to  tHeDooU.  Departments  or  tKe 

McGraw  Publishing1  Company  Hill  PublLshing"  Company 

Publishers   of  Books  for 

Electrical  World  The  Engineering  and  Mining"  Journal 

Engineering  Record  American    Machinist 

Electric  Railway  Journal  Coal  Age 

Metallurgical  and  Chemical  Engineering  Power 


TECHNOLOGY 


AND 


INDUSTRIAL  EFFICIENCY 


A  SERIES  OF  PAPERS  PRESENTED  AT  THE  CONGRESS 
OF  TECHNOLOGY,  OPENED  IN  BOSTON,  MASS., 
APRIL  10,  1911,  IN  CELEBRATION  OF  THE  FIFTIETH 
ANNIVERSARY  OF  THE  GRANTING  OF  A  CHARTER 
TO  THE  MASSACHUSETTS  INSTITUTE  OF  TECHNOLOGY 


McGRAW-HILL    BOOK    COMPANY 

239  WEST  39TH  STREET,  NEW  YORK 

6  BOUVERIE  STREET,  LONDON,  E.G. 

1911 


V 


COPYRIGHT,  1911 

BY 
McGRAW-HILL   BOOK   COMPANY 


PREFACE 


THE  charter  of  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology  was  signed 
by  Governor  Andrew  on  the  10th  of  April,  1861.  In  the  half-century 
that  has  elapsed  since  that  date,  the  Institute  lias  steadily  advanced  in 
power  and  influence.  Its  educational  policy  has  served  as  a  model  for 
numerous  similar  institutions  in  this  country  and  abroad,  and  its  graduates 
have  taken  a  prominent  part  in  opening  up  the  country,  in  developing  its 
industries,  in  conserving  the  health  of  its  citizens,  and  generally  in  adding 
to  the  national  welfare  by  the  application  of  scientific  methods  to  the  great 
practical  problems  of  the  day.  To  celebrate  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  its 
founding,  a  Congress  of  Technology  was  opened  in  Boston  on  the  10th  of 
April,  1911,  and  at  this  Congress  a  series  of  papers  was  presented  by  alumni 
of  tli3  Institute  and  by  members  of  its  faculty.  These  papers  are  here  col- 
lected and  reproduced  in  such  abbreviated  form  as  the  exigencies  of  space 
demand.  The  work  of  abbreviation  has  been  entrusted  to  a  board  of  editors, 
and,  of  course,  has  necessitated  liberties  being  taken  with  the  original  form 
of  presentation.  In  no  case,  however,  has  any  substantial  change  been 
consciously  made. 

A  paper  entitled  "  Thirty  Years'  Work  in  Boiler  Testing,"  by  George 
H.  Barrus,  '74,  Consulting  Seam  Engineer,  Boston,  has  been  omitted  because 
it  was  too  long  to  publish  in  extenso,  and  could  not  be  presented  satisfac- 
torily in  abstract  form. 

An  interesting  discussion  of  "  Some  Problems  of  High  Masonry  Dams," 
by  John  R.  Freeman,  '76,  Consulting  Engineer,  Providence,  R.  I.,  has 
unfortunately  not  been  reduced  to  writing  in  time  for  publication. 


242295 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Some  Factors  in  the  Institute's  Success,  President  Richard  C.  Maclaurin ...         1 


SECTION   A 
Scientific  Investigation  and  Control  of  Industrial  Processes 

The  Spirit  of  Alchemy  in  Modern  Industry,  W.  H.  Walker 11 

The  Conservation  of  our  Metal  Resources,  A.  E.  Greene,  '07 18 

Some  Causes  of  Failures  in  Metals,  Henry  Fay 26 

Metallography  and  Its  Industrial  Importance,  Albert  Sauveur,  '89 35 

Coal  Combustion  Recorders,  A.  H.  Gill,  '84 40 

An  Electric  Furnace  for  Zinc  Smelting,  F.  A.  J.  Fitzgerald,  '95 43 

Improvements  in  Cotton  Bleaching,  W.  S.  Williams,  '95 49 

The  Work  of  Engineers  in  the  Gas  Industry,  F.  P.  Royce,  '90 56 

The  Chemist  in  the  Service  of  the  Railroad,  H.  E.  Smith,  '87 61 

The  Control  of  Thermal  Operations  and  the  Bureau  of  Standards,  G.  K.  . 

Burgess,  '96  64 

The  Debt  of  the  Manufacturer  to  the  Chemist,  H.  J.  Skinner,  '99 70 

The  Prevention  and  Control  of  Fires  through  Scientific  Methods,  E.  V. 

French,  '89  72 

Research  as  a  Financial  Asset,  W.  R.  Whitney,  '90 80 

The  Utilization  of  the  Wastes  of  a  Blast  Furnace,  E.  M.  Hagar,  '93 90 

Developments  in  Paint  and  Varnish  Manufacture,  E.  C.  Holton,  '88 97 

Reclamation  of  the  Arid  West,  F.  H.  Newell,  '85 100 

Some  New  Chemical  Products  of  Commercial  Importance,  S.  W.  Wilder,  '91  103 


SECTION  B 
Technological  Education  in  its  Relations  to  Industrial  Development 

Influence  of  the  Institute  upon  the  Development  of  Modern  Education,  J.  P. 

Munroe,  '82  109 

The  Engineering'  School  Graduate :  His  Strength  and  His  Weakness,  H.  P. 

Talbot,  '85 114 

vii 


viii  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

The  Elevation  of  Applied  Science  to  an  Equal  Rank  with  the  So-called 

Learned  Professions,  E.  H.  Richards,  .'73 124 

The  General  Educational  Value  of  the  Study  of  Applied  Science,  A.  A. 

Claflin 129 

The  Development  of  Mining  Schools,  R.  H.  Richards,  '68 134 

The  Public  Function  of  the  Laboratories  of  Schools  of  Engineering,  H.  W. 

Hayward,  '96  137 

The  New  Profession  of  Economic  Engineering,  R.  W.  Babson,  '98 140 

Instruction  in  Finance,  Accounting  and  Business  Administration  in  Schools 

of  Technology,  H.  S.  Chase,  183 145 

Technical  Education  and  the  Contracting  Engineer1,  S.  B.  Ely,  '92 149 

The  Responsibility  of  Manufacturers  for  the  Training  of  Skilled  Mechanics 

and  Shop  Foremen,  A.  L.  Williston,  '89 152 

The  Training  .of  Industrial  Foremen,  C.  F.  Park,  '92 160 

Technical  Education:  Its  Function  in  Training  for  the  Textile  Industry, 

C.  H.  Eames,  '97 164 

The  Scientific  Development  of  the  Negro,  R.  R.  Taylor,  '92 167 


SECTION  C 
Administration  and  Management 

An  Object  Lesson  in  Efficiency,  W.  Lewis,  '75 173 

The  Scientific  Thought  Applied  to  Railroad  Problems,  B.  S.  Hinckley,  '99..  181 

Reliability  of  Materials,  W.  C.  Fish,  '87 186 

A  Consideration  of  Certain  Limitations  of    Scientific    Efficiency,    H.   G. 

Bradlee,    '91 190 

Scientific  Industrial  Operation,  Tracy  Lyon,  '85 200 

The  Trend  of  Commercial  Development  Viewed  from  the  Financial  Stand- 
point,  Charles  Hayden,  '90 204 

Profitable  Ethics,  David  Van  Alstyne,  '86 207 

The  Natural  Increase  in  the  Ratio  of  Burden  to  Labor  in  Modern  Manu- 
facturing Processes,  J.  B.  Stanwood,  '75 217 

Scientific  Management  of  American  Railways,  S.  M.  Felton,  '73 221 


SECTION  D 
Recent  Industrial  Development 

Improvements  in  Efficiency  of  Electric  Lighting  Properties  and  What  the 

Public  Gains  Thereby,  William  H.  Blood,  Jr.,  '88 269 

Advent  of  Illuminating  Engineering,  John  S.  Codman,  '93 277 

Development  of  Gasoline  Engines,  J.  C.  Riley,  '98 279 

The  Progress  of  Electric  Propulsion  in  Great  Britain,  Henry  M.  Hobart,  '89  284 

Mechanical  Handling  of  Materials,  Richard  Devens,  '88 289 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS  ix 

PAGE 

The   General   Solution   for   Alternating   Current   Distributions,   George   A. 

Campbell,  '91  293 

Electro-Chemistry  and  Its  Recent  Industrial  Developments,  Harry  M. 

Goodwin,  '90  304 

Mail-handling  Machinery  at  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  Terminal  and  New 

United  States  Post  Office  at  New  York  City,  Julian  E.  Woodwell,  '96.  315 
The  Development  of  a  System  of  Underground  Pneumatic  Tubes  for  the 

Transportation  of  United  States  Mail,  B.  C.  Batcheller,  '86. .; 327 

The  Continuous  Cooling  of  Circulating  Water  Used  for  Condensing  Steam, 

Edward  F.  Miller,  '86 352 

Power  Plant  Betterment,  H.  H.  Hunt,  '89 360 

The  Development  of  Economical  Ore-dressing  Systems,  Frank  E.  Shepard,  '87  367 

Recent  Developments  in  Bridge  Construction,  Frank  P.  McKibben,  '94 372 

The  Manufacture  and  Use  of  Asbestos  Wood,  Charles  L.  Norton,  '93 375 

The  Technics  of  Iron  and  Steel,  Theodore  W.  Robinson,  '84 380 


SECTION   E 
Public  Health  and  Sanitation 

Profitable  and  Fruitless  Lines  of  Endeavor  in  Public  Health  Work,  Edwin 

O.  Jordan,  '88  389 

The  Technical  School  Man  in  Public  Health  Work,  Harry  W.  Clark,  '88...  394 
Present  Status  of  Water  Purification  in  the  United  States  and  the  Part  that 

the    Massachusetts    Institute  of    Technology  has  Played,  George  C. 

Whipple,  '89  399 

The  Pollution  of  Streams  by  Manufacturing  Wastes,  William  S.  Johnson,  '89  406 
Sewage  Disposal  with  Respect  to  Offensive  Odors,  George  W.  Fuller,  '90. ..  413 

The  Food  Inspection  Chemist  and  His  Work,  Herman  C.  Lythgoe,  '96 439 

Factory  Sanitation  and  Efficiency,  C.-E.  A.  Winslow,  '98 442 

The  Work  of  the  Sanitary  Research  Laboratory  and  Sewage  Experiment 

Station    of    the    Massachusetts    Institute    of    Technology,    Earle    B. 

Phelps,  '99 449 

Bacteria  and  Decomposition,  Simeon  C.  Keith,  Jr.,  '93 459 


SECTION  F 
Architecture 

Landscape  Architecture:   A  Definition  and  a  Brief  Re'sume'  of  its  Past  and 

Present,  Stephen  Child,  '88 465 

Some  Phases  of  Modern  Architectural  Practice,  Walter  H.  Kilham,  '89 475 

The  Engineer  and  Architect  Unite,  Luzerne  S.  Cowles,  '97 480 

Mill  Construction  with  Steel  Frame  and  Tile  Walls,  John  O.  DeWolf ,  484 


SOME  FACTOES  IN  THE  INSTITUTE'S  SUCCESS 

By  RICHARD  C.  .MACLAURIN, 
President,  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology. 

IT  is  fifty  years  to-day  since  Governor  Andrew  signed  the  charter  of  the 
Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology.  There  are  many  in  the  community 
who  have  watched  the  growth  of  this  Institute  ever  since.  The  dean  of 
those  who  have  been  intimately  associated  with  its  government  is  Mr. 
William  Endicott — a  tireless  worker  in  its  interest.  He  writes  to  express 
regret  that  he  cannot  be  with  us  to-day,  on  account  of  a  recent  family 
bereavement,  and  adds :  "  It  has  been  one  of  the  greatest  pleasures  of  my 
life  to  watch  the  Tech's  triumphant  progress  from  small  beginnings  to  its 
present  assured  position  as  one  of  the  leading  scientific  institutions  of  the 
world."  In  spite  of  (perhaps,  because  of)  its  youth,  and  in  spite  of  (if 
not  because  of)  its  earlier  struggles  and  difficulties,  it  is  now  absolutely  in 
the  front  rank — a  recognized  leader  in  its  chosen  field,  held  in  respect  and 
honor  everywhere.  Why  this  conspicuous  success?  It  is  a  question  that 
has  often  been  discussed  in  the  reports  of  commissioners  and  other  distin- 
guished visitors  from  abroad,  and  in  the  councils  of  educators  at  home. 
Many  are  the  explanations  offered — the  earnestness  and  devotion  of  the 
faculty,  the  spirit  and  energy  of  the  students,  the  loyalty  and  organization 
of  the  alumni,  the  completeness  of  its  equipment,  the  number  and  distinction 
of  its  instructors,  the  variety  of  its  courses,  the  thoroughness  with  which  the 
students'  knowledge  and  ability  is  tested,  the  practical  character  of  the 
instruction,  the  close  touch  with  the  industries,  the  power  of  adaptation 
and  resources  manifested  by  its  graduates,  and  so  forth.  These  are  doubt- 
less all  contributory  causes  and  are  the  causes  that  naturally  suggest  them- 
selves to  a  student  not  specially  versed  in  the  history  of  the  Institute. 

At  this  season,  when  we  are  celebrating  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  its 
chartering,  it  seems  natural  to  lay  somewhat  more  emphasis  on  historic 
causes. 

The  more  one  looks  into  the  matter,  the  more  is  he  impressed  by  the 
fact  that  although  many  enlightened  men  cooperated  in  launching  the  Insti- 
tute on  its  course,  the  enthusiasm  and  the  guiding  power  were  supplied 


2  SOME   FACTOBS   IN    THE    INSTITUTE 'S    SUCCESS 

by  one  man — Eogers.  His  choice  of  Boston  as  a  suitable  place  for  the 
new  venture  was  made  deliberately.  Be  it  remembered  that,  he  was  not  a 
New  Englander,  that  he  was  nearly  sixty  years  of  age  when  the  Institute  was 
founded,  and  that  until  then  he  had  spent  the  greater  part  of  his  active  life 
in  the  Southern  States.  To  the  serenity  of  outlook  on  human  affairs  that 
marks  the  scientist  and  the  philosopher,  he  added  an  element  of  passion, 
when  he  touched  the  realm  of  education.  Nowhere  in  the  world  is  the 
supreme  worth  of  children  more  thoroughly  appreciated  than  in  America; 
nowhere  is  the  preparation  for  their  future  regarded  more  generally  as  one  of 
the  holy  offices ;  nowhere  in  America  is  this  sacred  duty  more  clearly  recog- 
nized and  more  anxiously  discussed  than  in  Boston.  So  Rogers  placed  the 
Institute  here,  not  because  of  the  paucity  of  schools  in  this  neighborhood,  but 
because  of  their  abundance;  not  because  of  their  weakness,  but  because  of 
their  strength.  This,  he  thought,  should  be  good  ground  in  which  to  sow  some 
fresh  educational  seed,  and  ere  long  his  expectations  were  fully  justified. 
Men  of  light  and  leading  in  the  community  gave  hearty  support  to  the  new 
venture.  Governor  Banks  favored  State  aid  to  the  Institute  on  the  ground 
that  such  an  institution  would  "  keep  the  name  of  the  Commonwealth  for- 
ever green  in  the  memory  of  her  children."  His  successor,  Governor 
Andrew,  who  signed  the  Institute's  charter,  was  greatly .  interested,  and  did 
all  he.  could  to  help.  "  We  ought/'  he  said,  "  to  start  on  a  broad  gauge  and 
inaugurate  a  great  plan  looking  to  the  long  future  of  the  Commonwealth." 
An  imposing  array  of  individuals  and  of  societies  petitioned  the  legislature 
to  aid  in  forwarding  the  new  scheme.  Had  Eogers  chosen  his  location  less 
wisely,  he  might  easily  have  failed  to  enlist  such  support.  The  advantages 
of  his  chosen  ground  became  still  more  apparent  at  the  critical  time  when 
men  had  to  be  found  to  carry  out  the  new  ideas.  He  realized  that  this  was 
the  point  where  he  was  to  gain  victory  or  suffer  defeat,  and  in  spite  of  the 
exceptional  difficulties  presented,  he  soon  succeeded  in  surrounding  himself 
with  the  right  men.  The  original  faculty  of  ten  professors  formed  a  vigor- 
ous group,  with  great  reserve  of  strength,  physical  as  well  as  mental.  They 
all  lived  to  a  ripe  old  age,  and  nearly  all  earned  distinction  in  their  own 
fields.  Four  of  these  men  are  still  happily  with  us,  including  the  professor 
of  analytical  chemistry,  Charles  W.  Eliot,  whose  vigor  is  not  perceptibly 
diminished  after  forty  years  of  exacting  toil  in  the  presidency  of  Harvard. 

It  seems  clear,  then,  that  one  important  factor  in  the  Institute's  suc- 
cess has  been  the  place  of  its  birth.  And  if  the  place  was  propitious,  the 
time  was  in  some  respects  peculiarly  so.  It  was  a  period  of  upheaval,  to  be 
followed  immediately  by  one  of  rapid  forward  movement.  The  charter  was 
granted  within  a  few  days  of  the  breaking  out  of  hostilities  marking  the 


EICHAED  C.  MACLAUEIN  3 

beginning  of  the  great  war.  The  national  crisis,  of  course,  turned  men's 
thoughts  away  from  science  and  from  education.  About  a  fortnight  after 
the  granting  of  the  charter,  Eogers  attended  a  meeting  of  the  Thursday 
Evening  Club,  and  was  called  upon  to  speak  on  some  matter  pertaining  to 
science.  According  to  a  newspaper  report  of  the  time  "  Professor  Eogers 
very  gracefully  declined  to  discuss  the  topic  proposed,  but  made  instead  a 
stirring  appeal  to  the  Club  in  favor  of  providing  a  regiment  of  our  brave 
volunteers  with  knapsacks."  Such  a  time  seemed  peculiarly  unpropitious 
for  initiating  a  new  educational  movement,  and  no  doubt  the  war  checked 
the  early  growth  of  the  Institute  very  seriously.  However,  after  a  few 
years,  the  nation  was  ready  to  turn  with  undivided  mind  to  the  great 
problems  of  development,  and  the  seed  having  been  sown  earlier  in  good 
ground,  the  Institute  sprang  up  rapidly  and  reaped  the  harvest  of  hope 
engendered  by  the  settlement  of  the  grave  moral  and  political  questions  to 
which  the  war  was  due.  In  the  quieter  field  of  human  activity,  the  field 
of  thought,  the  world  was  experiencing  an  equally  great  upheaval.  Dar- 
win's great  book  had  just  been  published,  with  results  of  the  first  magnitude 
in  shaping  the  lines  on  which  the  world  of  intellect  was  to  move  forward  for 
the  next  half  century.  KirchhoiFs  idea  of  spectrum  analysis  was  just  open- 
ing a  new  era  in  physics  and  in  astronomy.  Faraday  was  nearing  the  end  of 
his  great  career,  but  his  splendid  discoveries  had  not  yet  borne  fruit  in  the 
field  of  practice.  His  work,  however,  was  having  its  influence  on  the  mind 
of  Maxwell,  the  greatest  of  whose  scientific  achievements  was  announced  in 
1865,  the  year  in  which  the  Institute  actually  began  to  work.  The  world 
was  just  entering  on  a  period  of  remarkable  activity  in  the  practical  appli- 
cations of  science.  The  scientists  were  still  struggling  with  the  difficulties 
of  cabling.  The  Boston  of  those  days  was  somewhat  proud  of  its  critical 
spirit  and  in  1859  a  writer  in  the  Boston  Courier  proved  at  great  length  that 
all  the  "so-called "  messages  through  the  Atlantic  cables  were  fictitious, 
mere  shams  to  save  the  stock  for  a  time.  Edison,  who  was  living  in  Boston 
in  1868,  and  whose  son  is  an  undergraduate  at  this  Institute  to-day,  was 
just  beginning  his  wonderful  career  as  an  inventor.  A  few  years  later,  one 
of  the  greatest  marvels  of  scientific  achievement,  the  electric  transmission  of 
speech,  was  to  be  demonstrated  in  this  very  city,  by  Alexander  Graham 
Bell,  through  his  invention  of  the  telephone. 

At  such  a  time,  and  in  such  a  place,  an  institution  devoted  to  science 
and  its  application  had  at  least  an  excellent  chance  of  success.  The  Institute 
would,  however,  never  have  achieved  what  it  has,  if  other  forces  had  not  con- 
tributed to  its  success.  Some  of  these  have  been  mentioned  earlier ;  but  there 
is  one  of  the  very  first  importance,  rarely,  I  think,  appreciated  at  its  real 


4  SOME    FACTORS    IN    THE    INSTITUTE'S    SUCCESS 

value,  to  which  special  reference  should  be  made.  There  has  never  been  any 
uncertainty  or  indefiniteness  as  to  what  the  Institute  is  aiming  at  in  its 
scheme  of  education.  Every  serious  student  of  education  is  struck  by  the 
fact  that  so  many  schools  and  colleges  drift  around,  apparently  without 
compass  or  rudder,  with  no  definite  idea  as  to  what  port  they  are  trying 
to  reach,  or  how  they  should  go  to  reach  it.  Here,  at  any  rate,  is  an  institu- 
tion that,  from  the  very  outset,  has'had  very  definite  ideas  on  these  matters, 
whether  those  ideas  be  right  or  wrong.  Most  of  these  ideas  are  set  forth  in 
Rogers'  "  Objects  and  Plan,7'  which  forms  a  charter  of  the  Institute  not  less 
valuable  than  that  which  Governor  Andrew  signed.  At  the  time  of  writing 
it,  Rogers  was  no  novice  in  education.  He  was  not  far  short  of  sixty,  and 
had  taught  and  thought  on  educational  problems  since  very  early  manhood. 
He  had  discussed  some  such  project  as  that  of  the  Institute  for  twenty  years 
at  least,  and  his  ideas  thereon  had  gradually  clarified  and  crystallized,  as 
can  be  seen  from  the  record  of  their  development,  which  is  accessible  to  all. 
Rogers  has  sometimes  been  charged  with  setting  up  a  school  in  a  spirit 
of  antagonism  to  existing  institutions.  There  is  no  ground  for  such  a 
charge.  He  was  too  catholic  in  his  tastes  to  fail  to  appreciate  the  good  in 
others,  and  in  advocating  something  new,  he  took  the  safe  ground  that  there 
is  room  for  difference  in  the  field  of  education.  He  knew,  as  every  educated 
man  must  know,  that  the  fear  of  what  is  called  useful  knowledge,  is  exag- 
gerated, and  for  the  most  part  groundless.  He  knew,  as  others  do  to-day, 
that  the  oldest  universities  all  began  with  a  clear  recognition  of  the  bearing 
of  their  studies  on  definite  callings;  and  he  recognized  clearly  that  it  was 
not  a  merit,  but  a  defect,  of  these  schools  that  most  of  them  had  failed  to 
keep  pace  with  the  changes  in  the  character  of  human  occupations  that 
time  had  brought  forth.  He  saw,  as  Lowell  did,  that  "  new  times  demand 
new  manners  and  new  men  "  and  that  new  conditions  demand  new  schools. 
For  the  guidance  of  the  new  school,  he  laid  down  a  few  simple,  but  far- 
reaching,  principles,  which  have  governed  the  Institute  ever  since.  The 
first  of  these  is  the  importance  of  being  useful.  There  is,  of  course,  no  nec- 
essary antithesis  between  the  individual  and  the  social  end  in  education. 
However,  the  laying  of  the  emphasis  is  important,  and  Rogers  laid  it  unhesi- 
tatingly on  efficiency  in  the  service  of  society.  In  his  first  address  to  the 
students  at  this  Institute,  he  set  forth  the  value  and  the  dignity  of  the  prac- 
tical professions  for  which  they  were  to  prepare  themselves.  (Rogers,  him- 
self, be  it  remembered,  was  a  pure  scientist,  President  of  the  National  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences,  the  friend  of  Darwin,  Kelvin,  Helmholtz,  and  the  like.) 
In  earlier  discussions  with  his  brother  with  reference  to  the  plan  of  the 
Institute,  emphasis  had  been  laid  on  "the  value  of  science  in  its  great 


KICHABD  C.  MACLAUEIN  5 

modern  applications  to  the  practical  arts  of  life,  to  human  comfort,  and 
health,  and  to  social  wealth  and  power."  And  so,  when  the  Institute  was 
actually  founded,  the  importance  of  science  was  kept  steadily  in  view.  He 
regarded  the  scientific  habit  of  thought  as  specially  valuable  in  practical 
affairs  and  consequently  in  education  he  laid  greater  stress  on  broad  prin- 
ciples and  their  derivation  than  on  details  of  fact,  and  he  held  that  the 
SPIRIT  of  science  was  more  to  be  desired  than  all  the  gold  of  scientific 
knowledge.  These  are  his  words  :  "  In  the  features  of  the  plan  here 
sketched,  it  will  be  apparent  that  the  education  we  seek  to  provide,  although 
eminently  practical  in  its  aims,  has  no  affinity  with  that  instruction  in 
mere  empirical  routine  which  has  sometimes  been  vaunted  as  the  proper 
education  for  those  who  are  to  engage  in  industries.  We  believe,  on  the 
contrary,  that  the  most  truly  practical  education,  even  in  an  industrial  point 
of  view,  is  one  founded  on  a  thorough  knowledge  of  scientific  laws  and 
principles,  and  one  which  unites  with  habits  of  close  observation  and  exact 
reasoning,  a  large  general  cultivation.  We  believe  that  the  highest  grade  of 
scientific  culture  would  not  be  too  high  as  a  preparation  for  the  labors  of  the 
manufacturer."  It  will  be  seen  from  this  that  Eogers  made  no  fetish  of 
science,  and  that  he  welcomed  every  really  liberal  study.  Some  of  the  cham- 
pions of  the  new  school  joined  in  the  attack  on  the  older  learning;  but 
Eogers  had  no  sympathy  with  such  views.  "  The  recent  discussions  here 
and  elsewhere,"  he  said,  "  on  the  relative  value  of  scientific  and  classical 
culture  seem  to  threaten  an  antagonism  which  has  no  proper  foundation  in 
experience  or  philosophy."  And  although  the  study  of  the  classics  has  never 
formed  part  of  the  Institute's  courses,  History,  Economics,  Languages  and 
Literature  enter  its  curricula  far  more  extensively  than  is  generally  sup- 
posed. 

Apart  from  his  appreciation  of  the  value  of  all  sound  learning,  Rogers 
saw  clearly  that  the  whole  controversy  as  to  the  relative  merits  of  science  and 
the  classics  in  the  field  of  education  missed  the  mark  by  placing  the  emphasis 
ir»  the  wrong  place.  He  understood  that  when  one  gets  to  the  root  of  things 
in  education,  the  method  rather  than  the  subject  is  of  supreme  importance, 
and  his  insistence  on  the  value  of  method  in  teaching  was  the  cardinal  doc- 
trine in  his  creed  and  the  one  that  has  contributed  most  to  the  success  of  the 
Institute.  Doubtless  his  knowledge  of  the  history  of  science  turned  his 
thoughts  in  this  direction.  He  must  have  pondered  over  the  question,  as 
every  serious  student  has  done,  why  throughout  the  ages  the  world  stood  so 
still  in  the  realm  of  science.  It  was  not  for  lack  of  intellectual  power, 
for  no  one  who  has  examined  the  matter  can  fail  to  recognize  that  there 
really  were  giants  of  old.  The  failure  came  through  attacking  the  problem 


6  SOME   FACTOBS    IN    THE    INSTITUTE'S    SUCCESS 

by  the  wrong  method.  And  Eogers  concluded  that  much  of  the  failure  in 
education  was  due  to  similar  causes.  What  method,  then,,  is  the  right  one  ? 
His  fundamental  idea  here  was  not  original  with  Rogers.  It  had  been  clearly 
expressed  before,  but  rarely,  if  ever,  adopted  definitely  as  the  basis  of  educa- 
tional method  and  applied  systematically  throughout.  The  idea  is  familiar 
to  us  all  to-day,  the  idea  of  learning  by  doing.  "  How  can  a  man  learn  to 
know  himself?  "  asked  Goethe.  "  Never  by  thinking,  but  by  doing."  Add 
to  this  the  doctrine  of  Carlyle  that  "  the  end  of  man  is  an  action  and  not  a 
thought,  though  it  were  the  noblest,"  and  you  have  the  whole  thing  in  a 
nutshell.  Carlyle  is  often  quoted  as  having  said  that  the  modern  univer- 
sity is  a  great  library.  He  would  have  been  truer  to  his  own  doctrine  if  he 
had  said  that  the  modern  university  is  a  great  laboratory.  "  The  Institute," 
General  Walker  was  fond  of  saying,  "  is  a  place  not  for  boys  to  play,  but  for 
men  to  work."  Boys  and  men  alike  learn  most  effectively  by  working  for 
themselves,  and  the  do-it-yourself  method  has  been,  I  believe,  the  greatest 
factor  in  the  success  of  this  Institute  of  Technology. 

Whatever  be  the  explanation,  there  can  be  no  doubt  about  the  fact  of  its 
success.  It  is  not  merely  that  the  Institute  is  now  the  largest  institution  of 
its  kind  in  this  country,  and  as  regards  the  extent  and  variety  of  its  courses 
and  equipment,  the  most  nearly  complete  in  the  world.  It  is  not  merely  that 
it  has  grown  so  that  there  are  a  hundred  students  to-day  for  every  one  that 
took  the  preliminary  course  scarcely  fifty  years  ago,  and  that  amongst  these 
students  there  are  men  drawn  by  its  reputation  from  the  greatest  univer- 
sities of  England,  France  and  Germany,  as  well  as  from  the  leading  schools 
and  colleges  throughout  this  Union.  It  is  not  merely  that  its  teaching  staff 
has  expanded  so  that  it  contains  to-day  more  than  two  hundred  and  fifty 
men,  and  that  amongst  its  hundred  professors  are  to  be  found  many  men  of 
prominence,  and  not  a  few  of  national  and  indeed  international  reputation. 
It  is  not  merely  that  amongst  its  graduates,  there  are  men  of  the  front  rank 
as  pioneers  of  knowledge  in  the  field  of  pure  science,  nor  that  its  ten  thousand 
alumni  have  played  so  great  a  part  in  the  development  of  the  nation's  indus- 
try and  commerce,  and  in  the  preservation  of  the  public  health.  The  most 
striking  fact,  when  one  considers  the  Institute's  youth,  is  the  fact  empha- 
sized on  an  earlier  anniversary  by  Mr.  Augustus  Lowell  and  expressed  by 
him  in  the  phrase,  "  The  M.  I.  T.  is  preeminently  a  leader  in  education" 
Its  educational  ideals  and  methods  have  been  studied  almost  everywhere, 
and  almost  everywhere  the  trend  to-day  is  in  the  direction  in  which  the  Insti- 
tute has  long  been  moving. 

To  celebrate  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  the  granting  of  the  Institute's 
charter  a  Congress  of  Technology  has  been  arranged.  At  this  Congress, 


RICHAKD  C.  MACLATJBIN  7 

which  opens  to-day,  and  will  be  in  full  activity  to-morrow,  prominent  alumni 
and  members  of  the  faculty  are  to  deal  with  problems  raised  in  the  field  of 
their  own  specialty.  The  guiding  idea  throughout  is  the  gain  in  efficiency 
that  comes  from  the  application  of  scientific  methods  to  the  treatment  of  the 
great  practical  problems  of  the  day.  The  business  world  must  be  weary  of 
amateur  suggestions  for  the  conduct  of  its  affairs,  and  there  is  danger  of 
damage  to  a  great  cause  by  too  much  talk.  The  problem  of  increased 
efficiency  is  no  new  problem  to  the  man  of  affairs,  and  there  is  much  that  is 
thrust  upon  him  in  these  days  that  he  must  have  known  for  years.  On  the 
other  hand,  a  sane  and  serious  discussion  by  men  who  know  their  subject 
and  speak  from  experience  must  always  be  welcome,  and  doubtless  in  the 
proceedings  of  this  Congress  there  will  be  much  of  interest  to  the  business 
men  who  are  alive  to  the  necessity  of  advancement  and  who  are  on  the  alert 
for  suggestions  that  may  be  helpful  in  their  own  affairs. 

A  glance  at  the  program  will  give  some  idea  of  the  variety  of  the 
interests  represented,  but  more  thorough  study  is  needed  to  realize  in  any 
adequate  measure  that  the  work  of  this  Institute  touches  practical  life  at  a 
thousand  points.  What  the  Institute  has  achieved  in  half  a  century  has 
fully  justified  Rogers'  statement  when  making  his  first  appeal  for  public 
support.  "  I  am  sure,"  he  said,  "  that  I  speak  from  no  impulse  of  mere 
enthusiasm  when  I  say  that  this  new  undertaking  presents  an  opportunity 
of  practical  beneficence  in  connection  with  education  which  is  not  only  pecu- 
liar, but  without  precedent  in  this  country.  My  experience  as  a  teacher  and 
my  reflections  on  the  needs  and  means  of  industrial  instruction  assure  me 
that  this  enterprise,  when  fully  understood,  must  command  the  liberal  sym- 
pathy of  those  who  aim  to  make  their  generosity  fruitful  in  substantial  and 
enduring  public  good." 


SECTION  A. 

SCIENTIFIC  INVESTIGATION  AND  CONTROL  OF 
INDUSTRIAL  PROCESSES 


THE  SPIEIT  OF  ALCHEMY  IN  MODERN  INDUSTRY 

By  WM.  H.  WALKER, 
Professor  of  Chemical  Engineering,  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology. 

NEVER  in  the  history  of  the  world  has  there  been  such  a  time  of  intense 
human  activity  as  the  present :  never  a  time  of  such  gigantic  undertakings, 
such  marvelous  achievements.  Notwithstanding,  the  curve  of  progress  is 
still  an  ascending  one ;  although  for  some  nations  it  has  run  parallel  to  its 
axis  for  many  centuries,  yet  nowhere  on  the  earth  is  there  not  at  present  a 
marked  break  in  the  line  which  for  so  long  has  represented  a  monotonous 
level  in  human  affairs. 

While  there  has  been  remarkable  progress  in  ethics,  culture  and  the  fine 
arts,  this  world  movement  in  human  endeavor  is  epitomized  in  the  expres- 
sion "  modern  industry."  Of  the  many  factors  which  have  entered  into  the 
advance  in  industry  as  a  whole,  possibly  the  most  important  is  found  in  the 
manufacture  and  use  of  power.  Where  once  we  measured  results  by  what 
a  man  could  do,  or  later  what  a  horse  could  do,  now  we  measure  the  power  at 
our  command  by  thousands  of  kilowatts.  We  have  had  an  age  of  steam,  and 
we  are  passing  through  an  age  of  electricity,  and  what  next?  Many  think 
it  will  be  an  age  of  unprecedented  chemical  development.  We  have  reason 
to  be  well  satisfied  with  our  present  achievements;  we  do  things  so  much 
more  quickly  and  on  so  much  larger  a  scale  than  our  ancestors  did.  But  at 
this  enviable  rate  we  can  see  the  end  of  our  resources — coal,  timber,  iron  ore, 
are  already  measured  in  years.  We  must  improve  our  present  methods. 
We  must  inaugurate  along  every  line  of  great  endeavor  a  systematic  search 
for  new  truths,  new  light  into  the  secrets  of  nature  in  order  that  we  may  live 
and  work  more  efficiently. 

It  may  seem  a  long  step  from  a  consideration  of  human  dynamics  at  the 
intensity  of  the  present,  to  the  work  of  the  alchemists  of  centuries  ago,  with 
all  their  magic  and  mysticism,  their  solitary  lives  and  cherished  secrets. 
But  in  reality  there  is  something  in  common  between  these  ancient  investi- 
gators and  the  leaders  in  modern  industry ;  and  in  looking  ahead  as  to  how 
we  can  best  utilize  the  possibilities  of  the  future  we  may  learn  something  by 
considering  the  mistakes  of  the  past. 

The   captains   of  industry   and   their   army   of   co-workers   are   still 

n 


12  THE    SPIEIT    OF   ALCHEMY   IN    MODEEN   INDUSTEY 

alchemists  at  heart;  they  still  strive  to  transmute  the  base  materials  of  the 
earth  into  gold.  But  where  the  alchemist  was  satisfied  only  with  seeing  the 
noble  metal  glittering  in  his  alembic,  the  modern  business  man  is  content 
in  obtaining  from  his  still  a  treasury  certificate.  It  requires  no  magic 
philosopher's  stone  to  effect  a  transmutation  of  paper  into  gold  when  once 
the  former  bears  the  proper  inscription.  Wherein  have  modern  methods  of 
alchemy  changed  from  those  of  that  eminent  scholar  who  bore  the  name 
Phillipus  Aureolus  Theophrastus  Bombastus  von  Hohenheim,  and  who 
lived  and  worked  in  the  twelfth  century  and  an  account  of  whose  checkered 
career  has  been  handed  down  to  us  ? 

The  spirit  of  alchemy  is  well  represented  in  the  word  itself.  It  is  an 
Arabic  prefix,  and  the  old  Latin  word  for  Egypt,  meaning  the  dark,  secret 
or  hidden.  It  was  the  black  art  of  the  ancients.  Another  name  some- 
times used  was  "hermetic  art,"  meaning  also  closed  or  sealed  from  view. 
The  goal  of  those  men  from  the  gray  of  antiquity  to  the  monks  of  the  Middle 
Ages  was  the  discovery  of  a  way  to  make  gold  and  silver  from  the  metals 
already  known,  such  as  mercury  and  copper,  tin  and  iron.  We  can 
see  as  we  look  back  over  their  labors  how  now  and  again  they 
received  just  the  encouragement  necessary  to  keep  alive  the  embers 
of  hope  which  glowed  in  each  one's  primitive  laboratory.  By  melting 
the  base  metal  copper,  with  an  earth  which  we  know  carried  arsenic,  a 
silver- white  metal  was  formed ;  how  easy  to  believe  that  this  was  an  impure 
silver  which  needed  but  refining  to  be  the  longed-for  result.  When  iron  was 
left  in  a  water  solution  of  blue  stone  it  disappeared  and  copper  was  found  in 
its  place.  Surely  this  was  a  transmutation  of  iron  and  copper.  Why  not 
under  proper  conditions  a  further  change  of  copper  into  gold? 

But  very  many  patient  and  able  men  devoted  their  lives  to  this  fruitless 
search  without  material  progress  being  made.  The  alchemists  of  Arabia 
and  early  Germany  were  little  wiser  than  their  predecessors  of  Egypt  many 
centuries  before  them.  The  explanation  of  this  lack  of  progress  is  to  be 
seen  in  the  profound  secrecy  which  was  at  all  times  maintained.  When 
some  enterprising  worthy  did  take  it  upon  himself  to  transcribe  for  future 
generations  his  knowledge  of  the  mystic  art,  his  sentences  were  so  ambigu- 
ous, and  his  diction  so  involved,  as  to  make  the  whole  entirely  meaningless. 
Mysterious  symbols  were  employed  to  render  imitation  the  more  difficult. 

There  was,  therefore,  no  accumulation  of  knowledge  or  experience,  and 
each  succeeding  investigator  continued  to  grope  in  the  darkness  which  had 
ever  enveloped  his  calling,  without  deriving  any  benefit  from  the  labor  of 
either  his  predecessors  or  his  contemporaries.  The  great  and  insurmount- 
able obstacle  to  progress  was  nothing  more  than  the  jealous  secrecy  engen- 


WM.    H.    WALKER  13 

dered  by  selfish  competition.  Both  confidence  and  cooperation  were  entirely 
wanting.  Each  one  feared  that  his  neighbor  might  profit  by  his  experience 
were  it  to  become  known,  never  realizing  that  he  must  in  the  end  get  much 
more  in  return  than  he  gave.  There  was  but  one  of  him,  while  there  were 
many  of  his  neighbors. 

But  in  the  thirteenth  century  there  came  a  change.  One  Eoger  Bacon, 
who  from  his  rare  accomplishments  and  erudition  was  called  Doctor  Mirabi- 
lis,  and  who  firmly  believed  in  the  existence  of  the  philosopher's  stone,  was 
being  tried  at  Oxford  for  sorcery.  To  disprove  the  charges  against  himself, 
he  wrote  a  celebrated  treatise  with  a  long  Latin  name,  in  which  he  showed 
that  phenomena  which  had  been  attributed  to  supernatural  agencies  were 
in  fact  due  to  common  and  natural  causes.  He  pointed  out  further  in  his 
brief,  a  possible  distinction  between  what  he  called  theoretical  alchemy,  or 
work  which  could  advance  the  knowledge  of  natural  phenomena,  and  prac- 
tical alchemy,  or  the  striving  after  immediately  usable  information.  He  is 
to  be  regarded  as  the  intellectual  originator  of  experimental  research,  and  by 
his  generous  treatment  of  the  knowledge  gained,  gave  to  the  movement  the 
impetus  for  which  it  had  so  long  waited.  The  limitations  of  this  paper  pre- 
clude my  following  in  any  detail  the  development  of  chemistry  through  the 
succeeding  centuries,  but  it  can  be  easily  shown  that  just  as  knowledge  was 
sought  after  for  its  own  sake,  and  in  proportion  as  there  was  free  and  honest 
intercourse  between  the  investigators  of  the  time,  just  so  rapidly  was  real 
progress  made. 

The  course  of  human  events  has  been  compared  to  a  pendulum.  We 
tend  to  swing  to  extremes;  to  go  too  far  in  one  direction,  and  then  in 
the  other,  when  real  progress  lies  in  the  middle.  The  period  of  alchemy  rep- 
resents the  pursuit  of  science  for  selfish  and  sordid  ends ;  its  sole  object  was 
that  of  making  gold.  The  pendulum  was  at  one  extreme  of  its  path.  But  at 
that  time,  as  at  this,  the  making  of  gold  by  whatever  means  did  not  in  itself 
bring  happiness  or  contentment,  or  even  success.  With  the  appearance  of 
men  who  took  an  absorbing  interest  in  the  study  of  natural  phenomena,  for 
the  purpose  of  gaining  a  deeper  insight  into  the  world  around  them,  when 
investigations  were  undertaken  from  a  desire  to  know,  and  to  acquire  knowl- 
edge which  could  become  the  property  of  the  world  at  large,  the  pendulum 
began  to  move  back. 

For  years  the  efforts  of  investigating  minds  were  devoted  to  the  explana- 
tion of  the  phenomena  of  nature;  to  the  discovery  of  new  laws  and  prin- 
ciples; to  the  accumulation  and  organization  of  facts,  into  what  is  called  a 
science — to  a  real  search  for  truth.  This  resulted  in  a  general  uplift  of 
humanity,  an  advance  in  civilization,  which  cannot  be  described  or  measured 


14  THE    SPIRIT    OF    ALCHEMY    IN    MODERN    INDUSTRY 

in  words.  It  was  a  time  when  the  human  mind  was  struggling  to  determine 
realities  in  the  midst  of  tradition  and  superstition;  to  realize  that  nature 
is  always  complex  but  never  mysterious;  that  dependence  should  be  placed 
in  proven  facts  rather  than  in  the  vagaries  of  priests  and  philosophers.  Man 
became  intellectually  free. 

But  for  many  years  after  the  broad  generalizations  upon  which  modern 
chemistry  is  founded  were  well  established,  industry  did  not  profit  much 
by  scientific  work.  One  hundred  years  ago  the  men  who  smelted  the  iron 
and  copper,  the  lead  and  zinc,  knew  little  of  the  principles  underlying  their 
practice.  Leather  was  tanned,  woolens  and  silks  were  dyed,  porcelains  and 
glass  were  made,  without  the  aid  of  those  who  alone  knew  the  chemistry 
involved.  These  were  times  when  the  advance  in  chemical  knowledge  was 
far  ahead  of  the  industries  on  the  success  of  which  our  material  comforts 
depend,  and  which  then  stood  in  such  need  of  help. 

A  rational  attempt  to  apply  chemical  knowledge  and  methods  to  the 
industries  commenced  about  1850,  and  is  in  reality  contemporaneous  with 
the  founding  of  the  Institute  of  Technology  which  we  to-day  celebrate.  It 
was  in  1856  that  Perkins  made  the  first  synthesis  of  a  coal-tar  color,  and 
founded  the  industry  which  has  become  the  most  remarkable  example  of 
applied  chemistry  that  we  have.  In  1855  Bessemer  introduced  his  revolu- 
tionary process  for  making  steel,  made  possible  by  the  clear  understanding 
of  the  nature  of  steel  through  improved  analytical  processes.  With  the 
founding  of  the  Institute  of  Technology  and  other  similar  institutions, 
which  not  only  did  its  part  in  advancing  science,  but  taught  its  students 
how  to  apply  this  science  to  the  problems  of  the  day,  our  industrial  progress 
has  gone  forward  with  leaps  and  bounds. 

I  would  point  out  in  passing  that  a  great  contribution  in  the  aid  of 
civilization  is  not  necessarily  made  by  the  simple  discovery  of  a  scientific 
fact.  Although,  for  example,  the  reactions  underlying  the  ammonia-soda 
process  were  well  known  for  many  years,  this  knowledge  did  not  benefit  the 
world  until  the  genius  of  Solvay  made  through  it  pure  and  cheap  soda  avail- 
able. Cavendish  long  ago  discovered  that  an  electric  arc  produced  nitric  acid 
from  the  air ;  the  world  waited  until  a  few  years  ago  in  order  to  profit  by  this 
knowledge,  when  the  researches  of  Birkeland  and  Eyde  made  of  the  idea  an 
industrial  process.  It  was  for  this  ability  to  apply  scientific  facts  to  the 
necessities  of  the  times,  that  the  world  was  looking  at  the  time  of  the  found- 
ing of  the  Institute  of  Technology.  Much  pure  science  we  had,  but  it  was 
as  yet  largely  "  uncontaminated  by  the  worship  of  usefulness,"  if  I  may 
quote  a  contemporary.  It  was  to  just  the  kind  of  men  which  the  Institute 
of  Technology  turned  out — men  who  could  appreciate  the  beauties  of  pure 


WM.    H.    WALKEE  15 

science,  and  at  the  same  time  had  the  ability  to  apply  it,  that  our  marvelous 
advance  in  material  prosperity  was  due. 

But  to-day  there  can  be  seen  evidences  of  a  swing  of  the  pendulum  past 
the  center  and  again  to  approach  an  undesirable  extreme.  Eesearch  has 
become  a  word  to  conjure  with.  Private  bequests  for  institutions  of 
research  in  almost  every  field  of  science  are  made  in  units  of  millions  of 
dollars.  The  most  significant  movement,  however,  is  the  very  general 
establishment  of  laboratories  for  research,  and  especially  chemical  research, 
by  great  industrial  organizations.  This  movement  is  but  in  its  infancy, 
and  it  is  here  that  a  return  of  the  old  spirit  of  alchemy  is  to  be  feared.  It 
has  its  foundation  in  the  impatience  of  the  more  enterprising  firms  to  wait 
for  scientific  facts  and  principles  to  be  discovered  by  others;  hence  their 
willingness  to  appropriate  often  very  large  sums  of  money  and  to  actively 
enter  the  field  of  what  is  called  research  in  applied  chemistry. 

From  what  has  already  been  said,  there  may  appear  to  be  a  paradox  in 
the  expression  "research  in  applied  chemistry."  How  can  the  element  of 
research  enter  into  the  work  of  applying  to  definite  ends  the  facts  already 
established  as  true  by  others?  Is  there  a  difference  between  research  in 
so-called  pure  chemistry,  and  research  in  what,  for  want  of  a  better  name, 
we  will  call  applied  chemistry?  Possibly  I  can  make  the  distinction  clear 
by  a  rough  analogy.  The  development  of  research  in  a  science  may  be 
compared  to  the  exploration  of  a  new  country.  New  roads  are  to  be  laid  out, 
tunnels  bored  and  bridges  built;  in  other  words,  new  problems  solved. 
This  may  be  done  in  two  ways.  First,  constructive  work  may  be  undertaken 
wherever  an  interesting  problem  presents  itself,  without  regard  to  whether 
there  is  a  demand  for  such  structure  or  not.  It  is  built  because  of  the 
interest  of  the  builder  in  solving  this  particular  difficulty,  and  the  pleasure 
he  takes  in  it,  knowing  also  that  sometime  it  will  be  utilized.  As  a  rule 
he  is  under  no  great  pressure  to  get  the  structure  completed.  This  may  rep- 
resent the  method  of  pure  chemistry,  and  the  great  advance  in  scientific 
knowledge  of  the  past  was  made  by  boring  just  such  tunnels  and  building 
just  such  bridges.  The  industries  have  used  these  structures  when  they 
could,  or  when  some  second  builder  could  adapt  them  to  use.  Eesearch  in 
applied  chemistry  differs  from  that  just  described  only  in  this — I  should 
say,  it  need  differ  only  in  this — that  when  a  problem  is  to  be  solved,  a 
bridge  to  be  built,  the  work  is  undertaken  at  a  point  where  there  is  a  demand 
for  its  use ;  where  people  are  waiting  to  cross  over  so  soon  as  it  is  finished. 
The  method  of  building  is  no  different,  the  difficulties  no  less.  The  fact 
that  the  bridge  is  to  be  used  makes  the  work  of  building  no  less  dignified, 
nor  is  it  possessed  of  less  pleasure.  In  both  cases  the  builder  profits  by  all 


16  THE    SPIRIT    OF   ALCHEMY   IN   MODEBN   INDUSTBY 

that  has  been  done  before,  and  contributes  his  bridge  and  the  new  materials 
of  construction  he  may  have  found,  to  those  who  may  come  after  him.  To 
cite  an  example  from  experience,  suppose  I  determine  the  electrical  con- 
ductivity of  metallic  oxides  at  high  temperature  with  great  accuracy,  and 
publish  the  results  without  reference  to  any  particular  application  of  the 
data.  This  is  pure  science.  But  suppose  I  am  trying  to  perfect  an  electrical 
heating  unit  for  high  temperatures,  and  in  insulating  my  resistor  I  do  this 
identical  piece  of  work,  namely,  measure  with  great  accuracy  the  electrical 
conductivity  of  metallic  oxides  at  high  temperature,  and  again  publish  the 
results.  This  is  applied  science.  The  work  need  not  differ  in  the  least 
degree.  It  can  be  as  accurately  done  and  the  conclusions  as  scientifically 
drawn.  The  mere  fact  that  the  data  will  be  used  for  some  practical  end 
need  not  make  the  work  any  less  purely  scientific. 

Why  then  has  research  in  pure  chemistry  commanded  more  respect  than 
research  in  applied  chemistry?  Why  did  an  eminent  writer  a  few  months 
ago  lament  the  fact  that  there  is  not  more  research  "  uncontaminated  with 
the  worship  of  usefulness"?  Why  does  usefulness  contaminate?  I  think 
it  lies  in  this :  the  investigator  of  pure  science  works  in  the  broad  daylight, 
throws  his  product  open  for  inspection,  and  invites  all  to  come  and  use  it 
when  they  can.  In  applied  chemical  research  the  spirit  of  alchemy  tends 
to  creep  in.  The  builder  keeps  his  materials  of  construction,  and  his 
designs,  a  secret,  and  so  boards  up  his  bridge  that  those  who  cross  over  it 
cannot  see  how  it  was  built,  nor  profit  by  his  experience.  The  moment  a 
thing  becomes  useful  we  become  jealous  of  its  possession ;  we  become  narrow 
in  our  horizon;  we  sell  our  scientific  birthright  for  a  mess  of  pottage;  we 
become  alchemists. 

There  is  a  heavy  moral  obligation  on  the  part  of  large  industrial  organi- 
zations having  fully  equipped  research  laboratories  to  contribute  their 
share  to  the  advance  of  the  world's  knowledge.  They  have  well-stocked 
libraries,  and  are  provided  with  all  the  current  periodicals;  they  profit  by 
all  the  scientific  work  which  has  been  done  and  is  being  done.  This  is  as  it 
should  be,  and  such  firms  are  to  be  commended  for  their  progressiveness. 
But  is  this  not  a  reason  why  such  laboratories  should  do  their  part  in 
adding  to  the  sum  of  available  knowledge?  There  is  in  every  laboratory 
much  work  which  could  be  published  and  yet  conserve  the  interests  of  the 
corporation.  First,  there  are  the  results  which  may  not  have  proved  valuable 
to  the  laboratory  in  which  they  were  obtained,  but  which  would  be  of 
immense  value  to  someone  else  working  in  an  entirely  different  field. 
Second,  there  are  those  results  of  value  to  the  laboratory  possessing  them, 
but  which  could  be  published  in  an  unapplied  or  "  pure  "  form  and  which 


WM.    H.    WALKER  17 

would  make  an  important  contribution  to  science  and  at  the  same  time  the 
publication  would  work  no  injury  to  the  company  or  corporation  most  inter- 
ested. And  finally  there  are  those  results  of  operations  and  processes, 
machines  and  apparatus,  which,  if  the  truth  were  known,  are  possessed  by 
a  large  number  of  concerns,  but  are  held  as  valuable  secrets  by  each.  Every 
one  would  profit  and  no  one  be  the  loser  by  so  farsighted  and  generous  a 
policy.  Germany  is  very  justly  held  up  before  us  as  a  shining  example  of 
marvelous  industrial  progress  and  prosperity.  A  very  great  deal  of  the 
credit  for  her  present  position  is  due  to  her  splendid  educational  system. 
But  no  small  factor  in  her  national  progress  is  the  helpful  attitude  which 
her  industrial  organizations  take  toward  the  publication  of  scientific  data. 
The  individual  does  not  suffer,  while  Germany  both  from  a  purely  scientific 
and  an  industrial  standpoint  is  rapidly  advanced.  But  too  often  with  us 
the  president  and  his  board  of  directors  are  alchemists ;  they  fail  to  see  why, 
if  they  pay  the  salaries  of  their  research  men,  they  should  give  to  the  public, 
or  their  competitors,  any  part  of  their  results.  They  exclaim  "what  has 
posterity  done  for  us?"  They  would  have  their  laboratories  remain  the 
secret  chambers  of  the  alchemists,  and  continue  to  improve  their  methods  of 
changing  baser  materials  into  gold  without  regard  to  the  obligations  which 
they  owe  to  their  fellows. 

It  requires  no  extensive  mathematical  calculation  to  prove  that  the 
manufacturers  themselves  would  be  the  ones  to  profit  by  such  a  liberal  treat- 
ment of  the  results  of  scientific  work.  Of  one  hundred  manufacturing 
concerns  each  one  would  give  but  one  per  cent  of  the  whole  contribution, 
while  he  would  receive  the  remaining  ninety-five  per  cent.  He  could  not  in 
the  long  run  be  the  loser.  But  of  vastly  more  importance,  he  would  feel  and 
know  that  his  organization  was  taking  part  in  a  world  movement  toward  that 
increase  of  human  knowledge  upon  which  all  real  progress  depends.  Why 
become  selfish  and  sordid  so  soon  as  one's  scientific  work  becomes  of  imme- 
diate value  to  one's  fellows?  The  greater  sense  of  satisfaction,  the  greater 
success  of  even  an  industrial  organization,  lies  in  a  fuller,  freer,  more  gen- 
erous publicity  of  the  scientific  results  of  their  laboratories.  Would  that 
each  such  industry  might  benefit  by  the  experience  of  Solomon,  King  of 
Israel,  who,  when  asked,  "  What  shall  I  give  unto  thee  ?  "  replied,  "  Give  me 
knowledge  and  wisdom,"  and  he  was  answered,  "  Wisdom  and  knowledge 
are  granted  unto  thee ;  and  I  will  give  thee  riches  and  wealth  and  honor." 


THE  CONSERVATION  OF  OUR  METAL  RESOURCES. 

By  ALBERT  E.  GREENE,  '07, 

Electro-Metallurgical  Engineer,  American  Electric  Smelting  and  Engineering  Co., 

Chicago,  111. 

MY  theme  before  this  Congress  is  the  conservation  of  our  metal 
resources.  Just  as  we  are  conserving  the  timber  in  the  forests;  utilizing  the 
land  we  have  heretofore  called  desert;  using  the  exhaust  steam  of  steam 
engines  and  greatly  increasing  their  power;  so  also  in  the  metallurgy  of 
our  base  metals  we  are  beginning  to  conserve  a  1-10  of  a  per  cent  of  metal 
here,  a  1  per  cent  of  metal  there  which  have  hitherto  gone  to  waste.  Most 
of  you  are  aware  of  the  great  progress  made  in  recovering  copper  or  silver 
or  gold  out  of  low-grade  ores  that  contain  only  a  small  percentage  of  these 
metals.  Now  in  another  field  there  is  a  loss  which  has  been  going  on  before 
our  eyes  with  apparently  no  attention,  and  it  is  a  loss  which  amounts  to 
millions  of  dollars  per  year.  It  is  affecting  not  only  large  corporations, 
but  it  is  affecting  small  producers  even  to  a  greater  extent.  The  loss  to 
which  I  refer  is  the  loss  of  metal  in  the  processes  of  making  steel  and  other 
metals  from  ores. 

In  the  production  of  the  20,000,000  of  tons  of  steel  per  annum  in  this 
country  there  is  a  loss  of  metal  by  oxidation  during  the  conversion  process 
which  probably  aggregates  1,000,000  tons.  Most  of  this  metal  is  lost  in 
the  slag  and  some  of  it  can  be  reduced  again  by  smelting  the  slag  in  the 
blast  furnace,  but  in  the  Bessemer  process  a  large  part  is  blown  out  of  the 
vessel  in  fine  dust  which  is  difficult  to  collect.  The  loss  of  metal  by  oxida- 
tion in  the  Bessemer  process  alone  probably  aggregates  over  500,000  tons 
per  year. 

Another  significant  fact  is  that  a  very  considerable  part  of  the  metal 
lost  by  oxidation  consists  of  elements  which  are  more  valuable  than  iron — 
such  as  manganese  and  silicon.  These  elements  are  usually  required  by 
specification  in  the  finished  steel,  and  although  the  iron  ore  usually  contains 
enough  of  them,  and  the  blast  furnace  process  usually  reduces  them  into 
the  iron  in  sufficient  quantity  to  meet  specifications  without  any  additions, 
yet  in  the  Bessemer  and  open  hearth  processes  they  are  almost  invariably 
oxidized  again  and  practically  lost.  When  one  remembers  these  facts  and 

18 


ALBERT    E.    GREENE,    '07  19 

that  it  costs  to  reduce  these  metals  into  the  iron  and  that  after  they  are 
oxidized  out  they  have  to  be  replaced  by  expensive  alloy  additions  to  the 
steel — it  seems  as  though  this  were  an  excellent  opportunity  to  apply  con- 
servation theories  to  advantage. 

My  object  in  this  paper  is  to  point  out  how  such  losses  as  these  can  be 
and  are  beginning  to  be  diminished,  and  another  object  is  to  show  how  the 
application  of  physical  and  chemical  principles  to  these  problems  is  one  of 
the  greatest  aids  we  have  in  acomplishing  this  end.  If  I  can  do  this  I 
shall  feel  that,  in  some  small  way  at  least,  I  shall  have  served  my  alma 
mater,  to  whom  I  feel  very  greatly  indebted. 

It  has  been  my  privilege  to  have  followed  one  of  the  newer  fields  of 
development  influencing  the  conservation  of  our  metals.  This  is  the  field  of 
high  temperature  chemistry  which  the  advent  of  the  electric  furnace  has 
opened  up.  It  has  been  said  by  prominent  steel  men  that  in  the  next  ten 
years  the  greatest  developments  in  that  industry  will  be  those  effecting 
increased  metallurgical  efficiency.  I  venture  to  say  that  in  this  one  industry 
by  the  application  of  electricity,  together  with  improved  chemical  processes, 
there  will  result  a  saving  of  metal  which  will  amount  to  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  tons  per  annum. 

I  wish  to  try  to  show  how  the  electric  furnace  can  influence  conservation 
in  such  a  way.  It  is  not  simply  because  the  electric  furnace  provides  a 
means  of  getting  extremely  high  temperature,  but  rather  because  by  means 
of  electrically  developed  heat  we  can  simultaneously  control  the  temperature 
and  the  chemical  reactions  wholly  independently  of  one  another.  This  is  a 
most  important  fact  and  it  opens  up  a  whole  new  field  of  chemistry,  espe- 
cially where  the  gaseous  treatment  of  metal  is  involved. 

For  the  sake  of  comparison  let  us  consider  the  methods  of  heating  now 
in  use.  Almost  invariably  heat  is  obtained  by  the  combustion  of  fuel.  The 
fuel  is  usually  burned  in  the  same  chamber  with  the  material  heated  so  that 
gaseous  products  of  combustion  come  in  contact  with  the  material.  These 
products  of  combustion  are  themselves  of  an  oxidizing  nature,  since  they 
always  contain  oxygen,  and,  furthermore,  to  obtain  high  temperatures 
efficiently  it  is  necessary  to  burn  the  fuel  with  excess  of  oxygen,  which  makes 
the  atmosphere  still  more  oxidizing.  Thus  we  see  that  as  a  general  thing 
high  temperatures  are  obtained  only  under  more  or  less  oxidizing  conditions 
whether  such  conditions  be  desired  or  not.  For  example  where  steel  scrap 
is  melted  in  an  open  hearth  furnace  the  steel  tak^s  up  more  or  less  oxygen 
in  some  form  or  other  and  the  melted  steel  must  be  deoxidized  by  use  of 
silicon  and  aluminum  or  other  agents.  Here  much  metal  could  be  saved 
if  the  atmosphere  could  be  controlled.  In  another  example,  such  as  the 


20  THE    CONSERVATION    OF    OUR   METAL   RESOURCES 

open  hearth  process  where  pig  iron  is  being  converted  into  steel,  the  oxidiz- 
ing atmosphere  aids  in  oxidizing  the  carbon,  but  the  trouble  is  that  it 
oxidizes  the  metal,  too,  and  this  is  the  important  cause  of  the  great  loss  of 
metal  referred  to  above.  Even  though  the  atmosphere  may  be  modified 
slightly  by  allowing  the  gas  to  enter  the  furnace  chamber  next  the  charge 
and  beneath  the  air,  yet  this  does  not  prevent  the  loss  by  oxidation.  And 
so  we  are  practically  driven  to  use  the  electric  furnace  if  we  desire  to  control 
temperature  and  atmosphere  independently  of  one  another. 

Let  us  now  see  what  can  be  accomplished  by  means  of  such  independent 
control  of  temperature  and  gases  and  let  us  consider  in  this  connection  the 
meaning  and  use  of  the  term  "neutral  atmosphere." 

One  often  hears  of  maintaining  a  neutral  or  non-oxidizing  atmosphere 
in  an  electric  furnace  to  prevent  oxidation.  If  we  have  a  bath  of  steel  and 
an  iron  oxide  and  lime  slag  on  top  of  it,  a  neutral  or  non-oxidizing  atmos- 
phere would  not  necessarily  prevent  oxidation  of  elements  in  the  steel.  A 
neutral  atmosphere  would  be  in  equilibrium  with  iron  and  and  an  oxide  of 
iron.  If  we  are  going  to  make  use  of  the  atmosphere  to  prevent  oxidation  it 
must  be  controlled  and  not  kept  simply  neutral.  It  ought  to  be  reducing  in 
certain  cases  and  oxidizing  in  others.  And  this  leads  me  to  the  consideration 
of  an  idea  whose  application  in  practical  processes,  I  believe,  is  new.  It  is 
this:  We  can,  by  controlling  the  temperature  and  also  the  composition  of 
the  atmosphere  acting  on  a  charge  at  a  given  temperature,  effect  a  reduction 
of  one  substance  and  an  oxidation  of  another  substance  at  the  same  time  by 
the  same  atmosphere.  As  far  as  I  am  aware,  the  application  of  this  idea  to 
the  oxidation  of  an  impurity  out  of  a  metal  without  oxidation  of  the 
metal  itself  and  even  with  the  reduction  of  the  metal  oxides,  is  new.  Its 
application  to  the  conversion  of  iron  into  steel  makes  it  possible  to  oxidize 
the  carbon  without  the  very  great  loss  of  metal  I  have  already  referred  to. 

Inasmuch  as  I  was  led  to  a  clearer  conception  of  such  a  process  as  this 
by  a  careful  study  of  the  chemical  principles  involved,  it  may  be  of  interest 
to  apply  one  or  two  of  these  principles  to  a  simple  case,  for  it  is  the  applica- 
tion of  these  principles  which  I  believe  is  of  great  value  in  improving  the 
efficiency  of  such  processes. 

Suppose  we  are  working  on  pig  iron  and  can  react  on  it  in  a  furnace 
chamber  with  an  oxidizing  or  reducing  gas  or  mixtures  of  these  gases  and 
at  any  temperature  and  pressure.  The  physical  conditions  to  be  controlled 
in  such  a  case  are  the  temperature  and  the  pressure  of  gas  in  the  furnace 
chamber;  the  chemical  conditions  are  the  reactions  between  the  different 
elements  and  compounds  present. 

The  two  laws  particularly  applicable  in  this  case  are  the  Mass  Action 


ALBEET    E.    GEEENE,    '07  21 

Law  and  the  Phase  Eule.  Let  us  choose  a  simple  reaction  which  might  take 
place  in  the  above  example.  The  C02  gas  present  may  act  on  the  iron  as 
follows : 

C02+Fe=FeO+CO. 

The  law  of  Mass  Action  tells  us  that  if  such  a  reaction  goes  on  in  a 
closed  vessel  at  a  given  elevated  temperature  and  pressure,  a  condition  of 
equilibrium  will  be  reached  and  the  CO  produced  will  bear  a  certain  relation 
to  the  C02  present.  For  the  given  temperature  and  pressure  the  ratio  of 
the  amount  of  CO  and  C02  will  have  a  particular  value.  The  Mass  Action 
Law  also  tells  us  that  if  we  force  more  C02  into  the  closed  vessel  the  oxida- 
tion will  proceed  further  and  if  CO  is  forced  into  space  the  oxidized  iron 
will  be  reduced. 

Now  suppose  we  replace  the  equilibrium  mixture  in  the  vessel  by  a 
mixture  of  CO  and  C02  in  which  the  CO  is  in  excess  of  the  amount  present 
under  the  equilibrium  conditions  just  referred  to;  the  result  will  be  that 
some  iron  oxide  will  be  reduced  and  C02  formed,  and  equilibrium  will  tend 
to  be  restored,  but  the  amount  of  solid  or  liquid  iron  oxide  remaining  will 
be  less  than  at  the  start.  We  can  make  this  replacement  continuous  so  that 
the  gas  in  the  chamber  is  always  reducing  toward  iron  oxide  and  we  therefore 
have  a  means  of  carrying  the  reduction  of  iron  oxide  to  completion  and 
preventing  the  further  oxidation  of  iron,  it  being  remembered  that  the 
amount  of  solid  FeO  present  does  not  influence  the  equilibrium.  And,  fur- 
thermore, this  can  be  done  with  a  gas  containing  the  oxidizing  agent  C02. 
By  keeping  enough  C02  present  it  is  possible  to  oxidize  carbon  without 
oxidizing  iron,  since  carbon  oxidizes  more  easily  than  iron  at  high  tem- 
peratures. 

With  respect  to  temperature  and  what  the  control  of  it  enables  us  to 
do,  the  Phase  Eule  tells  us,  among  other  things,  what  the  effect  of  tempera- 
ture will  be  on  the  equilibrium  we  have  just  considered.  It  tells  us  that 
the  tendency  of  oxygen  to  separate  from  iron  oxide  has  a  certain  definite 
value  for  every  temperature.  Increasing  the  temperature  increases  the 
tendency  to  separate  or  dissociate.  This  tendency  is  called  the  dissociation 
pressure  of  oxygen  for  the  particular  oxide  and  it  has  been  measured  for  a 
few  compounds.  For  our  purposes,  at  present  at  least,  we  can  and  must  get 
along  without  knowing  what  these  actual  pressures  are  because  they  have 
not,  except  in  a  few  cases,  been  determined ;  it  serves  our  purpose,  however, 
if  we  know  what  ratios  of  reducing  gas  to  oxidizing  gas  will  prevent  the 
undesired  oxidation  for  given  temperatures.  Thus  we  need  only  to  know, 
first,  what  ratio  of  CO  is  needed  with  a  given  percentage  of  C02  in  a  gas  in 


22       THE  CONSERVATION  OF  OUR  METAL  RESOURCES 

order  to  prevent  oxidation  of  iron  at  a  given  temperature,  and,  second, 
how  this  ratio  changes  with  the  temperature. 

The  Phase  Eule  tells  us  the  same  thing  about  other  elements,  for 
example,  silicon,  manganese,  carbon,  phosphorus,  etc.,  these  being  the  ones 
with  which  we  are  concerned  in  steel  processes,  and  we  find  that  at  a  given 
temperature  these  different  elements,  as  a  rule,  have  different  tendencies  to 
oxidize.  Since  the  temperature  affects  different  elements  differently  we  find 
also  that  at  certain  temperatures  two  elements  may  have  the  same  tendency 
to  oxidize,  and  the  so-called  critical  temperature  of  the  Bessemer  process 
when  both  silicon  and  carbon  have  an  equal  tendency  to  oxidize  is  one  of 
these  temperature  points. 

To  sum  up  a  few  of  these  considerations  we  have  seen  how  by  continu- 
ously controlling  the  atmosphere  acting  on  a  given  charge  we  may  carry 
out  any  particular  reaction  to  completion  or  how  we  may  prevent  a  given 
reaction  for  an  indefinite  time ;  how  an  atmosphere  which  is  reducing  to  one 
metal  at  a  given  temperature  may  not  be  reducing  but  may  even  be  oxidizing 
to  another  element  and  that  the  term  "  Neutral "  is  indefinite  unless  some- 
thing more  is  specified. 

And  finally  I  think  you  will  see  how  the  electric  furnace,  by  reason 
of  enabling  us  to  control  temperature  and,  at  the  same  time,  oxidize  one 
element  while  keeping  another  reduced,  makes  it  possible  to  do  what  the 
present  steel-making  processes  cannot  do,  that  is,  oxidize  carbon  without 
the  tremendous  loss  of  other  elements  I  have  already  referred  to.  It  enables 
us  to  oxidize  carbon  and  not  iron  or  manganese  or  silicon ;  it  enables  us  to 
oxidize  phosphorus  without  oxidizing  iron  or  manganese;  it  enables  us  to 
separate  iron  from  copper  by  oxidizing  the  iron  without  oxidizing  the 
copper;  and  these  are  only  a  few  of  the  things  that  the  combination  makes 
possible. 

The  important  question  is :  Can  such  processes  be  carried  out  economi- 
cally, can  they  compete  with  present  processes  ?  When  we  started  to  develop 
these  processes  we  had  first  worked  them  out  theoretically  and  we,  too,  won- 
dered if  they  would  really  work  in  practice.  We  carried  out  an  extensive 
series  of  tests  on  a  small  scale,  and  as  these  tests  proved  that  it  was  possible 
to  accomplish  the  oxidation  of  one  element  without  oxidizing  others,  we 
then  designed  and  built  larger  furnaces  to  try  this  process  on  a  practical 
scale.  Our  first  practical  furnace  was  about  300  Ibs.  capacity  for  mak- 
ing steel  for  castings.  I  have  just  presented  a  paper  before  the  Ameri- 
can Electrochemical  Society  at  New  York,  on  the  5th  of  this  month,  which 
goes  into  more  detail  in  regard  to  this  process,  but  it  may  be  of  interest  to 
make  a  brief  comparison  with  the  converter  process  used  by  many  small  steel 
foundries  for  making  high-grade  steel. 


ALBERT    E.    GREENE,    '07  23 

In  the  converter  process,  molten  low-phosphorus  pig  iron  is  poured 
into  the  converter  and  blown  with  a  blast  of  air  usually  through  tuyeres 
near  the  level  of  the  metal,  the  air  burning  out  the  silicon,  manganese, 
carbon  and  considerable  iron.  In  these  small  converters,  such  as  is  used  in 
steel  foundries,  the  loss  is  very  high ;  it  is  often  more  than  18  per  cent  of 
the  weight  of  the  molten  pig  iron  started  with.  True,  about  4%  per  cent, 
which  goes  to  make  up  that  18  per  cent.,  is  carbon  and  silicon  which  have  to 
come  out  anyway,  but  there  remains  a  loss  of  13  or  more  per  cent  which  is  so 
much  waste  of  metal.  In  a  plant  making  only  20  tons  of  molten  steel  per 
day,  the  value  of  this  13  per  cent  of  steel  (for  it  would  be  steel  if  saved) 
would  at  $30  per  ton  amount  to  over  $23,000  per  year,  and  in  this  loss  is 
included  manganese  and  silicon,  which  have  to  be  put  back  again  by  adding 
alloys,  and  their  addition  entails  further  losses.  These  alloys,  usually  ferro- 
manganese  and  ferro-silicon,  serve  two  purposes :  they  partly  combine  with 
the  oxides  in  the  iron  which  have  come  from  the  air  blown  through  the  iron 
and  separate  out  as  slag,  and  part  of  them  remains  in  the  steel  and  raises 
the  percentage  of  these  elements  enough  to  meet  the  specifications. 

The  process  we  have  developed  and  which  we  are  calling  an  electric 
converter  process  is  carried  out  in  an  electric  furnace  instead  of  a  Bessemer 
converter,  and  the  molten  metal  is  blown  with  gas  of  a  regulated  composition 
instead  of  with  air.  The  vessel  must  be  electrically  heated  because  the  reac- 
tions of  the  gas  on  the  metal  do  not  supply  much  heat,  as  the  correspond- 
ing reactions  in  the  Bessemer  process  do.  We  use  a  gas  which  may  be 
obtained  from  a  cupola,  or  a  gas  producer,  or  from  a  blast  furnace.  This 
gas  would  contain  6  or  8  per  cent,  of  carbon  monoxide,  CO,  and  .12  or  15 
per  cent,  of  carbon  dioxide,  C02.  When  blown  into  molten  pig  iron  this  gas 
does  not  oxidize  iron  or  manganese,  and  as  pig  iron  usually  contains  man- 
ganese in  sufficient  quantity  to  meet  specifications,  this  process  avoids  re- 
placing that  element  by  expensive  alloy  additions.  The  metal  is  heated  to 
about  1450  degrees  Centigrade  and  blown  with  this  gas  and  the  carbon  is 
taken  out  by  it.  The  carbon  is  oxidized,  but  not  the  iron  nor  the  manga- 
nese. There  is  a  small  loss  of  manganese  by  vaporization,  but  this  is  so  small 
that  after  the  carbon  is  out  the  percentage  of  manganese  may  even  be  larger 
than  at  the  start. 

In  the  small  furnace  which  we  have  used  to  make  various  grades  of 
steel  we  have  been  able  to  convert  pig  iron  into  steel  with  a  total  conversion 
loss  of  only  about  2.5  per  cent  plus  the  weight  of  carbon  burned  and  includ- 
ing metal  spilled  in  handling  and  left  in  the  furnace,  and  this  compares  with 
a  total  loss  of  15  per  cent  plus  the  carbon  burned  by  the  Bessemer  process 
in  small  converters.  This  furnace  was  heated  by  induced  electric  currents 


24  THE   CONSERVATION   OF   OUR   METAL   RESOURCES 

in  the  metal.  The  process  is  now  installed  and  under  test  in  a  2-ton  fur- 
nace and  we  believe  that  the  developments  we  have  made  are  a  step  toward 
the  saving  of  that  immense  loss  which  is  going  on  to-day. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  applications  of  the  process  has  been  in  the 
production  of  manganese  steel.  As  is  well  known,  manganese  steel  contain- 
ing about  12  per  cent  manganese  has  very  valuable  properties  of  strength 
and  resistance  to  wear,  which  render  it  very  useful  for  such  articles  as  rail- 
way crossings,  rails,  crusher-jaws,  safes,  and  many  similar  things.  The 
scrap  steel,  such  as  heads  and  gates,  etc.,  from  castings  made  of  manganese 
steel  contains  a  valuable  amount  of  manganese,  but  in  the  melting  up  of 
manganese  steel  scrap  in  cupolas  much  of  the  manganese  is  lost  and  when 
the  melted  mixture  of  scrap  and  iron  is  blown  in  the  converter  all  the  rest 
of  the  manganese  not  already  lost  is  oxidized.  This  tendency  of  manganese 
to  oxidize  has  made  it  practically  impossible,  at  least  from  a  commercial 
standpoint,  to  make  low-carbon  manganese  steel  and  the  properties  of  such 
steel  are  almost  unknown.  By  applying  our  process  it  has  proved  practicable 
to  melt  manganese  steel  scrap  into  pig  iron  and  then  remove  the  carbon 
without  practically  any  loss  of  manganese  and  it  has  further  proved  prac- 
ticable to  produce  very  low  carbon  manganese  steel  in  this  way.  The  com- 
mercial saving  resulting  from  the  utilization  of  the  manganese  that  has 
heretofore  gone  to  waste  is  a  most  important  consideration  to  the  manu- 
facturer, and  this  saving  can  be  accomplished  at  a  cost  very  much  less  than 
the  value  of  the  metal  saved. 

These  examples  of  losses  in  steel  processes  are  characteristic  of  similar 
losses  in  the  metallurgy  of  various  other  metals;  in  the  process  of  converting 
copper  matte  for  removing  the  sulphur  and  the  iron  from  the  copper  there 
is  an  oxidation  of  copper  which  totals  up  very  high.  Likewise  in  the  metal- 
lurgy of  lead  there  is  a  similar  loss,  and  in  the  case  of  many  other  metals. 
These  losses  can  be  prevented  by  the  use  of  electric  heat  for  controlling 
temperature  and  simultaneously  controlling  the  composition  of  the  gaseous 
reagents. 

The  commercial  practicability  of  such  processes  depends  on  many  fac- 
tors, but  we  believe  that  the  losses  which  can  be  prevented  will  in  a  great 
many  cases  prove  to  much  more  than  offset  the  cost  of  electric  heating. 

The  field  of  chemistry  opened  up  by  the  electric  furnace  is  a  most  fer- 
ile  one  from  the  standpoint  of  scientific  research  as  well  as  on  the  practical 
side.  We  need  exact  knowledge  about  all  the  metals  and  elements  concerned 
in  high-temperature  metallurgy,  such  as  the  dissociation  pressures  of  vari- 
ous metallic  oxides  and  the  variation  of  these  pressures  with  the  temperature. 
Such  data  will  be  of  the  greatest  value  to  the  manufacturer,  so  that  there 


ALBEET   E.    GREENE,    '07  25 

shall  be  an  additional  incentive  to  its  collection  by  scientific  workers.  By 
means  of  such  data  and  by  the  application  of  simple  physical  and  chemical 
principles  in  practical  processes  I  believe  the  chemist  has  in  his  power  one 
of  the  greatest  means  to-day  of  aiding  the  cause  of  conservation  of  our 
metals. 

And  to  our  Institute  of  Technology,  for  the  things  she  stands  for;  for 
what  she  has  done  for  us  and  is  doing  for  many  others  to-day,  in  training, 
in  preparing  us  to  put  up  a  good  fight  for  things  worth  while ;  for  her  inspi- 
ration and  encouragement  in  helping  us  to  see  even  in  a  small  way  how  the 
tasks  she  placed  before  us  would  help  in  time  to  come,  for  all  these  gifts  I 
feel  that  I  owe  a  debt  to  our  Alma  Mater  that  only  the  greatest  effort  can 
pay,  even  in  part.  For  the  honor  and  privilege  of  being  one  of  her  sons  I 
am  profoundly  thankful. 


SOME  CAUSES  OF  FAILURES  IN  METALS 

By  HENRY  FAY, 
Professor  of  Analytical  Chemistry,  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology. 

IN  the  history  of  the  testing  of  metals  there  have  been  developed  various 
methods  for  ascertaining  whether  or  not  the  metal  in  question  was  suited 
for  some  particular  purpose.  The  first  of  these  methods  to  be  developed  to 
any  extent  was  the  purely  mechanical  test,  and  this,  for  a  considerable 
period  of  time,  was  the  only  method  available.  By  this  method  it  was 
possible  to  determine  the  tensile  strength,  the  elastic  limit,  the  reduction  of 
area,  the  elongation,  hardness,  etc.,  all  of  which  were  important,  but  in 
some  cases  where  the  amount  of  material  was  limited  this  method  was  not 
applicable.  Especially  was  this  true  in  cases  where  only  a  fragment  of  the 
material  was  available  for  experimentation. 

To  supplement  this  method  chemical  tests  were  applied,  and  much  valu- 
able additional  information  was  obtained.  The  application  of  analysis  was 
hailed  with  delight,  and  it  was  predicted  that  chemical  analysis  would  en- 
tirely supplant  mechanical  testing.  This  claim,  however,  was  extravagant, 
and  it  was  found  that  both  chemical  and  physical  tests  did  not  furnish  all  of 
the  data  necessary  to  explain  some  of  the  phenomena.  This  was  particularly 
true  in  those  cases  where  samples  of  steel  of  known  composition  had  been 
subjected  to  different  heat  treatment  in  the  process  of  manufacture.  In 
such  cases  chemistry  could  give  little  or  no  additional  information  as  to 
the  causes  of  variation  in  the  physical  properties. 

In  most  cases,  however,  chemistry  was  able  to  throw  much  light  upon 
the  properties  of  materials,  and  by  the  studies  of  many  investigators  the 
effect  of  carbon,  manganese,  phosphorus,  silicon,  sulphur  and  other  elements 
was  accurately  determined. 

A  third  method  of  testing,  the  metallographic  method,  was  developed, 
and  this  not  only  supplemented  the  information  obtained  by  the  physical  and 
chemical  tests,  but  it  was  able  in  many  cases  to  fill  in  the  gaps  where  the 
others  yielded  little  or  no  information.  Extravagant  claims  were  also  made 
for  metallography  as  for  chemistry,  and  these  claims  wore  modified  as  the, 

26 


HENRY   FAY  27 

experience  of  time  demanded.  At  the  present  time  metallography  is  a 
valuable  asset  to  the  testing  engineer  and  is  frequently  sufficient  in  itself, 
but  is  more  often  used  in  conjunction  with  1he  other  methods  of  testing. 
Its  particular  uses  are  in  experimental  work  where  studies  of  new  alloys  are 
being  conducted,  in  studies  involving  the  heat-treatment  of  steels,  and  in  the 
pathological  studies  of  material  failing  in  service. 

I  do  not  wish  to  go  into  the  history  of  metallography  and  will  assume 
that  its  principles  are  known,  but  I  should  like  to  present  several  cases  of  its 


FIG.  1 

application  to  the  pathological  study  of  ordnance  material.  In  this  field  it 
is  highly  important  to  properly  diagnose  the  cause  of  failure  so  as  to  avoid 
a  repetition  of  the  disease.  Whenever  possible,  metallographic  tests  have 
been  made  in  conjunction  with  physical  and  chemical  tests,  but  it  will  be 
seen  from  some  of  the  results  obtained  that  the  diagnosis  was  really  based 
on  metallographical  data. 

The  first  case  which  I  shall  report  is  that  of  a  very  expensive  tube 
forging  about  35  ft.  in  length,  with  walls  4  in.  thick,  and  the  internal 
diameter  10  in.  This  tube,  after  having  been  in  service  for  some  time,, 


28 


SOME   CAUSES   OF   FAILURES   IN   METALS 


developed  a  crack  on  the  inner  side  about  2  ft.  in  from  the  end,  which 
would  correspond  to  the  bottom  of  the  ingot.  The  crack  was  irregu- 
lar, not  completely  continuous  and  varied  in  width  throughout  its  length, 
as  shown  by  the  sketch  in  Fig.  1.  It  also  varied  in,  depth,  extending  much 
further  into  the  metal  in  the  central  portion  and  at  this  point  branching  to 
some  extent. 

Samples  for  chemical  analysis  were  taken  from  (A)  three  holes  drilled 
in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  the  crack,  and  from  (5)  the  other  end  of 
the  forging.  The  results  obtained  are  as  follows : 


Carbon    47  per  cent. 

Manganese   72 

Silicon 188      " 

Sulphur  024 

Phosphorus    024 


B 

.46  per  cent. 
.70 

.195  " 
.024  " 
.023  " 


There  is  nothing  to  criticize  in  this  analysis,  and  it  hence  gives  no 
clue  to  the  cause  of  failure. 

For  physical  tests,  eleven  specimens  6  by  1  by  1  were  cut  from  the 
neighborhood  of  the  crack,  some  longitudinal  or  parallel  to  the  direction  of 
forging,  others  tangential  and  one  in  a  semi-radial  direction.  In  addition, 
two  specimens  were  cut  from  the  remote  end  of  the  forging,  one  tangential 
and  the  other  longitudinal.  The  results  of  the  physical  tests  are  shown  in 
Table  1. 

TABLE  1 


Specimen. 

Tensile  Strength  , 
Ibs.  per  sq.in. 

• 

Elastic  Limit, 
Ibs.  per  sq.in. 

Elongation  per  cent 
in  2  in. 

Contraction   of 
Area. 

1 

91,000 

53,500 

27 

59.8 

2 

91,000 

53,500                     27 

59.8 

3 

90,500 

51,500                     24.5 

43.3 

4 

91,000 

51,500                     24 

43.4 

5 

88,500 

50,000                     24.5 

49.1 

6 

89,000 

51,500 

27.5 

59.8 

7 

89,000 

52,500 

27 

57.2 

8 

88,000 

50,500 

23 

43.3 

9 

92,500 

54,000 

25 

57.2 

10 

92,000 

54,000 

26.5 

57.2 

11 

92,500 

54,500 

26 

59.8 

From  Remote  End  of  Forging. 

Longitudinal   ...     88,000  53,000  29 

Tangential    83,000  38,500  25 


62.2 
32, 


HENEY   FAY  29 

From  an  inspection  of  these  results  it  is  evident  that  the  metal  is  uni- 
form and  of  good  quality,  and  that  the  crack  was  not  induced  by  the  use  of 
poor  metal.  The  chemical  and  physical  tests  are  confirmatory  in  every 
respect  and  yield  no  clue  to  the  cause  of  the  failure. 

The  specimens  cut  out  for  physical  tests,  before  turning  to  size,  were 
all  rough  polished  on  two  sides,  and  etching  experiments  were  made  to  see 
if  segregation  could  be  detected.  For  etching  purposes,  a  freshly  prepared 
6  per  cent  alcoholic  iodine  solution  and  an  8.5  per  cent  copper  ammonium 
chloride  solution  were  used.  The  latter  solution  is  strongly  recommended 
by  Heyn,  who  has  used  it  to  detect  segregation  of  phosphorus,  carbon,  slag, 
cold-worked  spots,  etc.  He  recommends  one  gram  of  copper  ammonium 


FIG.  2  / 

chloride  to  twelve  of  water  and  the  time  of  etching  one  minute.  As  a 
general  rule  this  solution  is  more  reliable  tSan  the  iodine  solution,  especially 
if  the  latter  is  not  freshly  prepared,  but  the  iodine  solution  gives  pssults 
which  are  better  suited  for  photographic  reproduction.  .-.if* 

These  two  reagents  confirmed  each  other  in  every  respect.  The  results 
of  these  etching  tests  are  shown  in  Figs.  2  and  3.  Characteristic  markings 
are  shown  in  each  specimen  and  the  relationship  to  the  position  in  the  origi- 
nal ingot  is  well  defined.  Heyn  has  shown  that  in  material  in  which  there 
is  some  segregated  phosphorus  the  spots  where  the  segregation  occurs  are 
marked  by  a  more  firm  adherence  of  the  deposited  copper  to  these  areas 
than  to  the  non-phosphoric  areas,  and  by  their  taking  on  a  bronze  color. 
This  statement  was  confirmed  by  trial  of  the  copper  solution  on  a  speci- 


30 


SOME    CAUSES    OF   FAILURES   IN   METALS 


men  of  cold-rolled  shafting  known  to  be  segregated.  On  the  same  specimen 
the  alcoholic  iodine  solution  left  the  phosphide  areas  much  brighter  than 
the  surrounding  material.  Parallel  lines  of  segregated  phosphide  are 
shown  in  specimens  marked  5  or  8,  on  Figs.  2  and  3,  respectively,  and  the 


FIG.  3 


cross-section  of  similar  lines  is  shown  in  specimens  3  and  9.  These  parallel 
lines  are  extended  in  the  direction  of  forging  and  hence  define  the  vertical 
axis  of  the  ingot.  In  all  sections  cut  parallel  to  the  vertical  axis,  the  phos- 
phide lines  are  parallel  or  very  nearly  so  except  in  the  region  of  the  crack, 


FIG.  4 


and  this  is  well  indicated  in  Figs.  4  and  5.     The  significance  of  this  fact 
will  be  referred  to  again. 

The  cross-sections  of  these  parallel  lines  therefore  define  the  horizontal 
axis.    On  all  sections  etched  on  faces  parallel  to  the  horizontal  axis,  in  addi- 


HENEY   FAY 


31 


tion  to  the  phosphide  marking,  there  is  developed  the  "  fir-tree  "  structure 
which  is  characteristic  of  the  original  ingot.  This  is  proof  positive,  there- 
fore, that  the  working  and  heat  treatment  of  this  forging  had  not  been 
properly  done,  otherwise  the  ingot  structure  would  have  been  eliminated 
entirely.  Notwithstanding  this  defect,  the  physical  tests  are  good,  but  cir- 


FIG.  5 


cumstances  might  arise  where  the  ingot  structure  would  be  decidedly 
detrimental. 

That  the  metal  did  not  receive  the  best  of  heat  treatment  is  shown 
in  the  coarsely  granular  structure  as  indicated  in  the  photo-micrograph, 
Fig.  6. 

Since  the  normally  parallel  lines  of  phosphide  of  iron  are  considerably 
distorted  near  the  crack,  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  metal  in  this 
region  had  been  much  distorted.  It  is  bighty  probable  that  this  distortion 
has  been  produced  by  a  fold  having  been  made  in  the  metal  during  the  time 


32 


SOME    CAUSES    OF   FAILURES   IN   METALS 


of  forging.  Evidence  in  favor  of  this  view  is  obtained  by  microscopic 
exploration  of  this  region.  If  a  fold  has  taken  place,  there  should  be  found 
evidence  in  the  form  of  slag,  particularly  of  oxide  of  iron,  within  the  metal. 


FIG.  6 


Figs.  7  and  8  show  straight  and  branching  lines  of  slag  with  some 
individual  and  finely  divided  particles.    This  is  characteristic  of  this  region. 


FIG.  7 


FIG.  8 


Both  photographs  show  the  unetched  metal.  In  Fig.  9  is  shown  a  photo- 
graph of  the  metal  etched  with  picric  acid.  At  the  upper  right-hand  side  is 
seen  a  crack  and  this  leads  into  a  globule  of  slag.  Surrounding  the  crack 


HENRY   FAY 


33 


and  slag  there  is  a  decarbonized  area.    This  decarbonized  area  is  distinctly 
visible  in  etched  specimens  taken  from  the  region  of  the  crack. 

The  presence  of  slag  and  the  decarbonized  areas  are  significant.    The 


FIG.  9 


decarbonized  area  indicates  fairly  clearly  the  nature  of  the  slag,  for  it  is 
easily  believable  that  if  a  fold  in  the  metal  had  taken  place  during  the 
process  of  forging  it  would  enclose  a  considerable  amount  of  mill-scale,  or 


FIG.  10 

magnetic  oxide  of  iron.  Further,  decarbonization  by  this  mill-scale  would 
readily  take  place  at  the  temperature  of  forging,  as  is  so  frequently  found  in 
forged  bars  which  show  less  carbon  on  the  outside  than  on  the  interior. 


34  SOME    CAUSES    OF    FAILURES    IN    METALS 

The  presence  of  slag  in  a  decarbonized  area  is  further  shown  in  Fig. 
10,  and  is  especially  well  shown  in  Fig.  11,  where  we  have  a  small  island  of 
slag  imbedded  in  its  carbonless  area,  and  this  in  turn  surrounded  by  the 
normal  structure  of  the  metal. 

In  previous  papers  it  has  been  shown  that  cracks  are  induced  not  only 
by  slag  included  in  the  metal,  but  that  when  once  formed  the  crack  will 
follow  along  and  through  the  slag  into  good  metal.  It  seems,  then,  that 
the  crack  in  this  tube  may  be  accounted  for  by  the  folding  in  of  magnetic 


FIG.  11. 

oxide  of  iron  during  the  process  of  forging  the  metal.  The  fold  was  appar- 
ently welded  together,  and  it  was  not  noticeable  during  the  machining 
process.  Later,  when  the  metal  was  subjected  to  severe  strain,  cracks 
opened  up  and  soon  extended  deeper  into  the  metal  until  it  was  found  nec- 
essary to  remove  it  from  service. 

It  has  been  further  demonstrated  that  the  forging  and  annealing  did 
not  remove  the  original  ingot  structure,  and  that  the  microstructure  was  not 
entirely  satisfactory.  Physical  and  chemical  tests  did  not  offer  any  explana- 
tion as  to  causes  of  failure,  but  metallographic  methods  seem  to  offer  a 
completely  satisfactory  one. 


METALLOGEAPHY  AND  ITS  INDUSTRIAL  IMPORTANCE. 

By   ALBERT    SAUVEUR,   '89, 
Professor  of  Metallurgy,  Harvard  University. 

TWENTY  years  ago  the  science  of  Metallography  was  practically 
unknown  and  it  is  only  within  the  last  fifteen  years  that  it  has  been  seriously 
considered  by  metal  manufacturers  and  consumers  as  a  valuable  method  of 
testing  and  investigating.  That  so  much  has  been  accomplished  in  so  short 
a  time  is  highly  gratifying  to  the  many  workers,  practical  or  scientific,  who 
have  contributed  by  their  efforts  to  the  progress  of  Metallography. 

To  realize  the  practical  importance  of  Metallography  it  should  be 
borne  in  mind  that  the  physical  properties  of  metals  and  alloys,  that  is, 
those  properties  to  which  these  substances  owe  their  exceptional  industrial 
importance,  are  much  more  closely  related  to  their  proximate  composition 
than  to  their  ultimate  composition,  and  that  microscopical  examination 
reveals,  in  part  at  least,  the  proximate  composition  of  metals  and  alloys, 
whereas  chemical  analysis  seldom  does  more  than  reveal  their  ultimate 
composition.  It  will  bear  repeating  that  from  the  knowledge  of  the  proxi- 
mate composition  of  a  certain  industrial  metal  or  alloy  we  are  able  to  infer 
its  properties  and,  therefore,  predict  its  adaptability,  with  a  much  greater 
degree  of  accuracy  than  if  we  knew  only  its  ultimate  composition.  The 
analytical  chemist  may  tell  us,  for  instance,  that  a  steel  which  he  has 
analyzed  contains  0.50  per  cent  of  carbon  without  our  being  able  to  form 
any  idea  as  to  its  properties,  for  such  steel  may  have  a  tenacity  of  some 
75,000  pounds  per  square  inch  or  of  some  200,000  pounds,  a  ductility  rep- 
resented by  an  elongation  of  some  25  per  cent  or  practically  no  ductility  at 
all;  it  may  be  so  hard  that  it  cannot  be  filed  or  so  soft  as  to  be  easily 
machined,  etc.  The  metal  microscopist,  on  the  contrary,  on  examining  the 
same  steel  will  report  its  structural,  i.e.,  its  proximate,  composition, 
informing  us  that  it  contains  approximately  50  per  cent  of  ferrite  and  50 
per  cent  of  pearlite  and. we  know  at  once  that  the  steel  is  fairly  soft,  duc- 
tile and  tenacious,  or  he  may  report  the  presence  of  100  per  cent  of  mar- 
tensite  and  we  know  that  the  steel  is  extremely  hard,  very  tenacious  and 
deprived  of  ductility.  Which  of  the  two  reports  is  of  more  immediate 

35 


36     METALLOGRAPHY  AND  ITS  INDUSTRIAL  IMPORTANCE 

practical  value,  the  chemist's  or  the  nietallographist's  ?  Surely  that  of  the 
metallographist.  Nor  is  it  only  in  the  domain  of  metals  that  we  find  such 
close  relationship  betwen  properties  and  proximate  composition,  for,  on  the 
contrary,  it  is  quite  true  of  all  substances.  How  many  organic  bodies,  for 
instance,  have  practically  the  same  ultimate  composition  and  still  are  totally 
unlike  in  properties  because  of  their  different  proximate  composition,  i.e., 
different  grouping  and  association  of  the  ultimate  constituents !  If  we  were 
better  acquainted  with  the  proximate  composition  of  substances  many  unex- 
plained facts  would  become  clear  to  us.  Unfortunately  the  chemist  too 
often  is  able  to  give  us  positive  information  in  regard  to  the  proportion  of 
the  ultimate  constituents  only,  his  reference  to  proximate  analysis  being  of 
the  nature  of  speculation.  Ultimate  analysis  has  reached  a  high  degree  of 
perfection  in  regard  to  accuracy  as  well  as  to  speed  of  methods  and  analyti- 
cal chemists  have  built  up  a  marvelous  structure  calling  for  the  greatest 
admiration.  Their  searching  methods  never  fail  to  lay  bare  the  ultimate 
composition  of  substances.  But  how  much  darkness  still  surrounds  the 
proximate  composition  of  bodies  and  how  great  the  reward  awaiting  the 
lifting  of  the  veil !  The  forceful  and  prophetic  writing,  in  1890,  of  Profes- 
sor Henry  M.  Howe,  M:  I.  T.,  '71,  naturally  comes  to  mind.  Speaking  of 
the  properties  and  constitution  of  steel,  Professor  Howe  wrote : 

"  If  these  views  be  correct,  then,  no  matter  how  accurate  and  extended  our 
knowledge  of  ultimate  composition,  and  how  vast  the  statistics  on  which  our  infer- 
ences are  based,  if  we  attempt  to  predict  mechanical  properties  from  them  accurately 
we  become  metallurgical  Wigginses.  .  .  . 

"  .  .  . ;  ultimate  analysis  never  will;  proximate  analysis  may,  but  by  methods 
which  are  not  yet  even  guessed  at,  and  in  the  face  of  fearful  obstacles. 

"  How  often  do  we  look  for  the  coming  of  the  master  mind  which  can  decipher 
our  undecipherable  results  and  solve  our  insoluble  equations,  while  if  we  will  but  rub 
our  own  dull  eyes  and  glance  from  the  petty  details  of  our  phenomena  to  their  great 
outlines  their  meaning  stands  forth  unmistakably;  they  tell  us  that  we  have  followed 
false  clues,  and  paths  which  lead  but  to  terminal  morasses.  In  vain  do  we  flounder 
in  the  sloughs  and  quagmires  at  the  foot  of  the  rugged  mountain  of  knowledge, 
seeking  a  royal  road  to  its  summit.  If  we  are  to  climb,  it  must  be  by  the  precipitous 
paths  of  proximate  analysis,  and  the  sooner  we  are  armed  and  shod  for  the  ascent,  the 
sooner  we  devise  weapons  for  this  arduous  task,  the  better. 

: '  By  what  methods  ultimate  composition  is  to  be  determined  is  for  the  chemist 
rather  than  the  metallurgist  to  discover.  But,  if  we  may  take  a  leaf  from  lithology, 
if  we  can  sufficiently  comminute  our  metal  (ay,  there's  the  rub!),  by  observing 
differences  in  specific  gravity  (as  in  ore  dressing),  in  rate  of  solubility  under  rigidly 
fixed  conditions,  in  degree  of  attraction  by  the  magnet,  in  cleavage,  luster,  and 
crystalline  form  under  the  microscope,  in  readiness  of  oxidation  by  mixtures  of 
gases  in  rigidly  fixed  proportions  and  at  fixed  temperatures,  we  may  learn  much. 


ALBEET    SAUVEUR,    >89  37 

"  Will  the  game  be  worth  the  candle?  Given  the  proximate  composition,  will 
not  the  mechanical  properties  of  the  metal  be  so  greatly  influenced  by  slight  and 
undeterminable  changes  in  the  crystalline  form,  size  and  arrangement  of  the  com- 
ponent minerals,  so  dependent  on  trifling  variations  in  manufacture,  as  to  be  still  only 
roughly  deducible?  ;; 

The  above  was  written  before  the  days  of  Metallography  or  at  least  when 
Metallography  had  barely  appeared  in  the  metallurgical  sky  and  when  no 
one  yet  had  fancied  what  would  be  the  brilliant  career  of  the  newcomer. 
Metallography  has  done  much  to  supply  the  need  so  vividly  and  timely 
depicted  by  Professor  Howe,  precisely  because  by  lifting  a  corner  of  the  veil 
hiding  from  our  view  the  proximate  composition  of  metals  and  alloys  it  has 
thrown  a  flood  of  light  upon  the  real  constitution  of  these  important 
products.  Has  the  game  been  worth  the  candle?  Will  anyone  hesitate  to 
answer  in  the  affirmative  Professor  Howe's  question? 

Professor  Howe  with  his  usual  acumen  was  conscious  of  the  fact  that 
proximate  analysis,  while  likely  to  reveal  a  great  deal  more  of  the  constitu- 
tion of  metals  than  ultimate  analysis  ever  could,  might  still  leave  us  in  such 
ignorance  of  their  physical  structure  as  to  throw  but  little  additional  light 
upon  the  subject.  His  fear  was  certainly  well  founded,  and  surely  if  the 
proximate  composition  had  been  obtained  by  chemical  analysis  it  would 
indeed  have  told  us  little  of  the  structure  or  anatomy  of  the  metals.  In  the 
domain  of  proximate  composition  chemistry  cannot  do  more  for  the  metal- 
lurgist than  it  does  for  the  physician.  Invaluable  information  chemistry 
does  give,  without  which  both  the  physician  and  the  metallurgist  would  be 
in  utter  darkness,  but  it  throws  little  or  no  light  upon  the  anatomy  of  living 
or  inanimate  matter.  Its  very  methods  which  call  for  the  destruction  of 
the  physical  structure  of  matter  show  how  incapable  it  is  to  render  assist- 
ance in  this,  our  great  need.  The  parallel  drawn  here  between  metals  and 
living  matter  is  not  fantastic.  It  has  been  aptly  made  by  Osmond,  who  said 
rightly  that  modern  science  was  treating  the  industrial  metal  like  a  living 
organism  and  that  we  were  led  to  study  its  anatomy,  i.e.,  its  physical  and 
chemical  constitution;  its  biology,  i.e.,  the  influence  exerted  upon  its  con- 
stitution by  the  various  treatments,  thermal  and  mechanical,  to  which  the 
metal  is  lawfully  subjected ;  and  its  pathology,  i.e.,  the  action  of  impurities 
and  defective  treatments  upon  its  normal  constitution. 

Fortunately  Metallography  does  more  than  reveal  the  proximate  com- 
position of  metals.  It  is  a  true  dissecting  method  which  lays  bare  their 
anatomy,  that  is,  the  physical  grouping  of  the  proximate  constituents,  their 
distribution,  relative  dimensions,  etc.,  all  of  which  necessarily  affect  the 
properties,  for  two  pieces  of  steel,  for  instance,  might  have  exactly  the  same 


38     METALLOGRAPHY  AND  ITS  INDUSTRIAL  IMPORTANCE 

proximate  composition,  that  is,  might  contain,  let  us  say,  the  same  pro- 
portion of  pearlite  and  ferrite  and  still  differ  quite  a  little  as  to  strength, 
ductility,  etc.,  and  that  because  of  a  different  structural  arrangement  of 
the  two  proximate  constituents ;  in  other  words,  because  of  unlike  anatomy. 

It  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  the  path  trodden  during  the  last  score  of 
years  was  at  all  times  smooth  and  free  from  obstacles.  Indeed,  the  truth 
of  the  proverb  that  there  is  no  royal  road  to  knowledge  was  constantly  and 
forcibly  impressed  on  the  mind  of  those  engaged  in  the  arduous  task  of 
lifting  Metallography  to  a  higher  level.  Its  short  history  resembles  the 
history  of  the  development  of  all  sciences.  At  the  outset  a  mist  so  thick 
surrounds  the  goal  that  only  the  most  courageous  and  better  equipped 
attempt  to  pierce  it,  and,  perchance,  they  may  be  rewarded  by  a  gleam  of 
light.  This  gives  courage  to  others  and  the  new  recruits  add  strength  to  the 
besieging  party.  Then  follow  the  well-known  attacking  methods  of  'scien- 
tific tactics  and  strategy  and  after  many  defeats  and  now  and  then  a  victo- 
rious battle  the  goal  is  in  sight — but  only  in  sight  and  never  to  be  actually 
reached,  for  in  our  way  stands  the  great  universal  mystery  of  nature; 
what  is  matter?  what  is  life? 

Nevertheless  there  is  reward  enough  for  the  scientist  in  the  feeling 
that  he  has  approached  the  goal,  that  he  has  secured  a  better  point  of  vantage 
from  which  to  contemplate  it.  The  game  was  worth  the  candle.  And  if  the 
scientific  workers  must  necessarily  fail  in  their  efforts  to  arrive  at  the  true 
definition  of  matter,  whatever  be  the  field  of  their  labor,  they  at  least  learn 
a  great  deal  concerning  the  ways  of  matter,  and  it  is  with  the  ways  of 
matter  that  the  material  world  is  chiefly  concerned.  Hence,  the  usefulness 
of  scientific  investigation;  hence,  the  usefulness  of  Metallography. 

Like  any  other  science  with  any  claim  to  commercial  recognition, 
Metallography  has  had  first  to  withstand  the  attack  and  later  to  overcome 
the  ill-will  and  reluctance  of  the  so-called  "  practical  man  "  with  a  decided 
contempt  for  anything  scientific.  He  represents  the  industrial  Philistine 
clumsily  standing  in  the  way  of  scientific  application  to  industrial  opera- 
tions. Fortunately,  while  his  interference  may  retard  progress,  it  cannot 
prevent  it.  Had  he  had  his  own  way  neither  the  testing  machine,  nor  the 
chemical  laboratory,  nor  the  metallographical  laboratory,  nor  the  pyrometer, 
would  ever  have  been  introduced  in  iron  and  steel  works. 

In  Metallography,  as  in  other  fields  of  research,  American  workers, 
with  very  few  exceptions,  have  been  quite  willing  to  let  Europeans  perform 
the  arduous  and  generally  unrewarded  task  of  the  pioneer,  being  content 
to  wait,  before  entering  the  field,  until  practical  results  were  fairly  in 
sight.  Such  a  course,  which  is  never  to  be  commended,  becomes  intolerable 


ALBERT    SAUVEUE,    '89  39 

when  accompanied,  as  it  so  frequently  is,  by  the  boasting  attitude  of  the 
man  believing  himself  smarter  than  his  neighbor,  whom  he  regards  in  the 
light  of  the  cat  drawing  the  chestnuts  from  the  fire.  America,  barring  bril- 
liant exceptions  like  Richards,  at  Harvard,  and  Noyes,  at  Tech,  does  not 
as  yet  do  her  share  of  the  pioneer's  work  in  investigations  which  do  not 
give  evident  indications  of  quick  commercial  returns.  The  unselfish,  nay, 
self-sacrificing  spirit  of  the  true  scientist  is  of  far  rarer  occurrence  in  the 
United  States  than  it  is  in  Europe  and  especially  in  France.  America  has 
not  yet  produced  a  Pasteur  nor  a  Berthelot,  intellectual  giants,  profound 
scientific  thinkers,  whose  conception  of  the  duty  of  the  scientist  as  a  man 
is  so  lofty  that  they  have  despised  the  wealth  within  their  easy  reach,  to 
devote  themselves  unreservedly  to  the  betterment  of  their  country,  or  rather 
of  the  world,  for  they  are  morally  so  great  th.at  the  entire  world  becomes 
their  fatherland;  humanity  claims  them. 

Speaking  in  1904  of  the  practical  value  of  Metallography  in  iron  and 
steel  making,  I  wrote  the  following,  which  it  may  not  be  out  of  place  to 
reproduce  here :  "  History,  however,  must  repeat  itself,  and  the  evolution 
of  the  metallographist  bids  fair  to  be  an  exact  duplicate  of  the  evolution  of 
the  iron  chemist ;  the  same  landmarks  indicate  his  course :  distrust,  reluc- 
tant acceptance,  unreasonable  and  foolish  expectation  from  his  work,  dis- 
appointment because  these  expectations  were  not  fulfilled  and  finally  the 
finding  of  his  proper  sphere  and  recognition  of  his  worth.  The  met- 
allographist has  passed  through  the  first  three  stages  of  this  evolution,  is 
emerging  from  the  fourth  and  entering  into  the  last.  For  so  young  a  candi- 
date to  recognition  in  iron  and  steel  making,  this  record  is  on  the  whole 
very  creditable/' 

We  may  say  to-day  that  he  has  definitely  entered  the  last  stage  and 
that  the  adverse  criticisms  still  heard  from  time  to  time,  generally  from 
the  pen  or  mouth  of  ignorant  persons,  are  like  the  desultory  firing  of  a 
defeated  and  retreating  enemy. 

In  the  United  States  alone  the  microscope  is  in  daily  use  for  the  exami- 
nation of  metals  and  alloys  in  more  than  two  hundred  laboratories  of  large 
industrial  firms,  while  Metallography  is  taught  in  practically  every  scientific 
or  technical  school. 


COAL  COMBUSTION  RECORDERS. 

By  AUGUSTUS  H.  GILL,  '84, 
Professor  of  Technical  Analysis,  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology. 

BY  the  simple  determination  of  the  carbonic  acid  content  and  tempera- 
ture of  the  gases  from  a  boiler  furnace,  its  efficiency  can  be  closely  deter- 
mined. By  the  investment  of  ten  dollars  in  premiums  to  keep  the  C02 
at  12  per  cent,  an  electric  company  in  a  Massachusetts  city  saved  40  tons 
of  coal.  This  would  seem  to  demand  the  attention  of  every  manufacturer 
using  coal. 

The  first  analyses  of  chimney  gases  were  made  in  1827,  by  Peclet :  they 
were  sampled  by  emptying  a  bottle  of  water  in  the  gases  and  he  found  that 
in  ordinary  combustion  only  about  half  of  the  air  was  used.  Bunsen,  in 
1839,  analyzed  the  gases  from  a  blast  furnace  in  Veckershagen  and  found 
that  over  40  per  cent  of  the  fuel  was  wasted :  attempts  were  made  to  use  this 
waste  heat  for  raising  steam.  The  analyses  in  those  days  were  tedious  and 
troublesome,  a  whole  day  being  employed  in  taking  a  sample.  Scheurer 
Kestner  used  ten  gallons  of  mercury  and  complicated  trains  of  combustion 
and  absorption  apparatus.  Now  a  result  is  obtained  in  five  minutes  and 
recorded — all  automatically. 

The  first  portable  apparatus  for  gas  analysis  was  devised  in  1872  by 
Clemens  Winkler,  the  discoverer  of  the  rare  element,  germanium.  This, 
however,  is  troublesome  to  manipulate,  is  not  jacketed,  and  hence  ill  adapted 
to  the  drafty  boiler  room.  It,  however,  served  a  useful  purpose  in  preparing 
the  way  for  a  better.  This  was  the  Orsat,  patented  by  M.  H.  Orsat,  of 
Paris,  in  1873,  and,  notwithstanding  its  price  of  15  pounds,  in  October, 
1874,  found  its  way  into  more  than  fifty  factories  in  all  parts  of  Europe 
and  even  in  America.  It  was  used  wherever  carbon  dioxide  was  generated — 
with  all  sorts  of  furnaces — puddling,  melting,  Bessemer,  Siemens-Martin, 
boilers,  gas  producers,  fermentation  industries,  beet  sugar  factories,  sul- 
phuric acid  and  alkali  works. 

The  chimney  gas  is  collected  and  measured  over  water  or  brine  in  a 
burette  and  successively  forced  into  various  absorbents  contained  in  pipettes : 

—      40 


AUGUSTUS   H.   GILL,    >84  41 

and  the  diminution  in  volume  represents  the  percentage  of  the  different 
constituents.  This  is  done  by  hand  and  requires  nearly  a  half-hour  for  its 
completion ;  three  gases  are  determined,  one  of  them  carbonic  oxide,  indica- 
tive of  imperfect  combustion  which  is  shown  by  no  other  apparatus.  It, 
however,  has  the  disadvantage  that  it  tells  what  is  transpiring  in  the  furnace 
only  at  the  time  at  which  the  sample  was  taken — a  very  brief  interval — two 
or  three  minutes  at  most.  Furthermore,  it  requires  an  attendant  to  operate 
it.  Its  indications  were  so  valuable  as  to  create  the  desire  for  an  automatic 
device  which  should  indicate  the  condition  of  the  boiler  furnace  the  same  as 
the  steam  gage  tells  the  pressure.  The  first  of  these  automatic  devices  was 
patented  in  England  in  July,  1892,  by  Custodis  and  Duerr,  of  Munich; 
this  consisted  of  a  balanced  glass  globe  suspended  in  a  case  into  which  the 
gas  to  be  tested  was  sucked — a  modification  of  the  Lux  gas  balance.  This 
invention  was  quickly  followed  by  a  variation  by  Arndt  in  September,  1892 ; 
Custodis  and  Duerr,  in  1895,  then  improved  their  first  balance  by  adding 
another  globe  and  making  it  recording. 

This  balance  type  of  apparatus  had  the  disadvantage  that  it  was  con- 
stantly in  motion,  with  the  result  that  the  knife  edges  and  planes  wore, 
rendering  it  less  sensitive,  requiring  frequent  repair  and  adjustment.  This 
type  was  superseded  by  the  absorption  apparatus  of  Arndt  in  Aachen,  who 
received  a  patent  in  England  in  December,  1896,  for  his  "  Ados  "  or  heating 
effect  meter.  Other  patentees  are  Cederborg,  of  Denver ;  Simmance  Abady. 
of  London;  J.  C.  Eckhardt,  of  Stuttgart;  Sarco  Fuel  Saving  and  Engi- 
neering Co.,  of  New  York;  Uhling  &  Steinhart,  of  Newark;  Salan  &  Birk- 
holz,  of  Essen;  G.  Van  Gildern  &  Co.,  of  Dusseldorf,  and  Hugh  K.  Moore, 
M.  I.  T.  '97,  Berlin,  K  H.  With  these  automatic  devices  usually  a  small 
stream  of  water  furnishes  the  power  to  draw  a  current  of  gas  from  the 
uptake  or  chimney  into  a  floating  gasometer  and  force  it  through  potassium 
hydrate  into  another  gasometer  which  is  connected  with  a  recording  device 
which  shows  the  amount  of  carbonic  acid  absorbed. 

This  should  be  about  13  per  cent,  as  if  a  greater  percentage  be  obtained, 
the  loss  by  the  formation  of  carbonic  oxide  usually  more  than  compensates 
for  the  increase  due  to  carbon  dioxide.  A  greater  percentage  than  13  means 
that  the  fires  are  too  thick.  A  less  percentage  than  10  means  either  that  the 
fires  are  too  thin  or  there  is  leakage  either  through  the  bricks  themselves 
which  form  the  setting  or  through  cracks  therein.  In  many  cases  this  is 
sufficient  to  reduce  the  C02  percentage  to  5  or  7  which  means  a  total  loss 
of  36  to  26  per  cent  of  the  fuel,  22  to  12  per  cent  more  than  should  be  lost, 
or,  otherwise  expressed,  of  nearly  5  to  2  tons  of  coal  every  twenty. 

This  table  shows  the  percentage  excess  of  air  and  percentage  loss  heat 


42  COAL    COMBUSTION   EECOKDEES 

with  the  gases  escaping  at  518°  Fahrenheit  for  various  percentages  cf  C02 
in  the  gases. 

Percent   CO3    ...     2      3      4      5      6      7      8      8     . 10    11    12    13    14    15    16 

Excess    air    850  530  370  280  220  170  140  110    90    70    60    50    40    30    20 

Loss   of  heat....    90    60    45    36    30    26    23    20    18    16    15    14    13    12    10 

NOT  are  these  apparatus  solely  applicable  to  the  regulation  of  combus- 
tion; wherever  an  absorbable  gas  as  sulphurous  or  hydrochloric  acids  or 
chlorine  is  evolved,  they,  modified  to  suit  the  circumstances,  can  be  installed. 
This  will  permit  of  increased  control  of  chemical  operations  and  conse- 
quently increased  economy. 


AN   ELECTEIC   FUENACE   FOE   ZINC    SMELTING. 

By  FRANCIS  A.  J.  FITZGERALD,  '95, 

Consulting  Chemical  Engineer,  Niagara  Falls,  N.  Y. 

THERE  is  no  branch  of  metallurgy  which  is  apparently  more  suited  to 
electric  furnace  treatment  than  that  of  zinc  smelting.  The  regular  method 
of  zinc  smelting  is  extraordinary  in  its  crudity,  inefficiency  and  expense, 
hence  the  relatively  high  cost  of  heat  generated  electrically  is  not  by  any 
means  so  serious  a  consideration  as  in  certain  other  metallurgical  processes. 
Moreover,  the  electric  furnace  possesses  certain  characteristics  which  make 
it  specially  applicable  to  the  conditions  of  zinc  smelting.  In  the  following 
paper  it  is  proposed  to  describe  briefly  a  new  form  of  electric  furnace  origi- 
nally designed  for  zinc  smelting,  although  it  has  useful  applications  in 
other  kinds  of  work. 

It  is  not  intended  to  discuss  here  the  metallurgy  of  zince  smelting, 
but  to  appreciate  properly  the  electric  furnace  which  will  be  described,  it 
will  be  necessary  first  briefly  to  consider  the  particular  method  of  zinc  pro- 
duction for  which  the  furnace  was  designed.  It  has  long  been  known  that 
when  zinc  sulphide  and  metallic  iron  are  strongly  heated  the  following 
reaction  takes  place : 

ZnS+Fe=Zn+FeS 

but  the  reaction  does  not  seem  to  be  complete  unless  there  is  a  relatively 
large  excess  of  iron,  or  unless  the  temperature  of  the  reaction  is  very  high. 
Imbert,  however,  discovered *  that  by  using  suitable  "  dissolvents "  this 
objection  to  the  process  is  overcome.  Imbert,  for  example,  found  that  ferric 
oxide  and  iron  sulphide  mixed  together  in  the  proportion  of  one  part  and 
three  parts,  respectively,  formed  a  very  fluid  bath  at  a  temperature  between 
1000  degrees  and  1100  degrees  Centigrade,  and  that  this  bath  would  "  dis- 
solve "  six  parts  of  blende.  Now  when  the  blende  is  "  dissolved "  in  a 
bath  in  this  way  the  reaction  with  iron  mentioned  above  takes  place  with 
the  greatest  ease,  is  complete,  works  at  a  comparatively  low  temperature 
and  as  a  residue  produces  two  distinct  substances — a  slag  consisting  of  the 
gangue  from  the  ore  and  a  ferrous  matte  which  may  be  used  for  the  regen- 
eration of  iron,  etc. 


U.  S.  Patent  875,579 ;  Dec.  31,  1907. 


43 


44 


AN   ELECTEIC    FUENACE    FOE   ZINC    SMELTING 


A  great  many  experiments  were  made  with  this  process  and  the  results 
were  highly  satisfactory,  except  that  it  was  very  difficult  to  construct  a  suit- 
able furnace  for  the  purpose.  Obviously,  working  the  process  in  the  ordinary 
zinc  retort  furnace  would  not  be  satisfactory,  for  the  process  should  be  car- 
ried out  with  a  much  larger  unit  than  a  zinc  retort.  When  it  comes  to  apply- 
ing fuel  heat  to  such  a  process  numerous  difficulties  arise  which  are  suffi- 
ciently plain  without  mentioning  them  in  detail.  This  naturally  led  to 
the  idea  of  using  an  electric  furnace  and  many  experiments  with  various 
kinds  were  made.  Finally  Mr.  John  Thomson  and  the  author  designed  a 
furnace  which  was  used  on  a  large  scale  in  the  working  of  the  Imbert 
process.  One  of  these  furnaces  of  150  kilowatt  capacity  was  constructed  and 
worked  under  the  author's  supervision  in  Hohenlohehiitte,  Upper  Silesia, 
with  highly  satisfactory  results. 

In  order  to  design  a  satisfactory  furnace  it  was  necessary  to  keep  cer- 


Scale 


FIG.  1 


tain  points  in  view.  The  furnace  must  be  gas-tight ;  the  temperature  must 
admit  of  careful  regulation ;  the  construction  must  be  rugged  so  as  to  stand 
severe  usage;  the  heat  losses  must  be  reduced  to  a  minimum  since  electri- 
cally generated  heat  is  always  expensive. 

In  Figs.  1,  2  and  3  are  shown,  respectively,  a  longitudinal  section, 
transverse  section  and  plan  of  the  furnace  with  the  cover  removed.  The 
walls  of  the  furnace  are  double  with  air-spaces  I  which  are  designed  to  pre- 
vent the  loss  of  heat  by  conduction  through  the  walls.  The  furnace  is  pro- 
vided with  carbons  T,  T,  C  and  C.  The  two  former  serving  as  terminals 
which  are  connected  to  the  source  of  current  by  means  of  cable  indicated 
by  P  and  Q,  while  the  two  latter  are  simply  connector  terminals  which  form 
the  other  terminals  of  the  two  sections  of  the  register  E,  E,  and  are  con- 
nected by  E.  Bearing  on  the  terminals  T,  T,  and  the  connector  terminals 
C,  C,  are  channels  B,  B,  which  are  connected  with  each  other  by  the  tension 
rods  S,  S.  The  channels  are,  of  course,  insulated  from  the  terminals.  The 


FBANCIS    A.    J.    FITZGERALD,    '95 


45 


furnace  is  lined  with  a  suitable  refractory  M  and  is  provided  with  a  tap-hole 
at  H.  The  resistor  of  the  furnace  is  built  up  of  a  series  of  corrugated 
plates,  which  are  illustrated  in  Fig.  4,  the  lower  drawing  showing  an  end 
view  of  the  plate,  while  that  above  shows  the  shape  in  which  the  plates 
are  cut  as  viewed  from  the  front.  In  Fig.  5  is  shown  a  view  of  the  plates 
set  up  so  as  to  form  a  resistor.  Considering  one  of  the  plates  it  is  to  be  noted 
that  the  thickness  is  not  the  same  from  top  to  bottom,  but  increases  from 
the  bottom  up  so  that  when  put  in  place  they  form  an  arch  of  very  long 
radius,  as  shown  in  Fig.  5,  because  of  the  interlocking  of  the  plates.  This 


FIG.  2 

arch  form  is  not  necessary,  but  seems  to  be  desirable  in  the  preliminary  as- 
semblage and  is  also  utilized  to  produce  a  somewhat  greater  current  density 
along  the  lower  surface  of  the  resistor.  The  cover  of  the  furnace,  which  is 
not  shown  in  the  illustration,  carries  feeding  tubes  by  means  of  which  the 
ore  mixture  may  be  fed  into  the  bath  below  the  resistor. 

The  peculiar  construction  of  the  resistor  plates  has  two  purposes:  to 
give  a  sufficiently  high  resistance  to  the  resistor  and  at  the  same  time  to 
form  an  interlocking  device  so  that  even  if  no  arch  form  is  given  to  the 
resistor  yet  it  will  not  fall  down.  A  furnace  was  built  with  plates  having 
these  dimensions : 

Length  at  top 405  mm.  (16  inches) 

Length  at  bottom 255    "       (10     "     ) 

Width  165    "       (  6.5  "      ) 

The  two  sections  of  the  resistor  contained  71  plates  each.  This,  when 
cold,  had  a  resistance  of  0.200  ohm,  and  when  running  at  the  full  capacity  of 
150  kilowatts,  and  with  a  temperature  in  the  furnace  of  1400  degrees  Cen- 
tigrade, the  resistance  was  0.0375  ohm.  This  resistance  is  due  almost  alto- 


46  AN    ELECTRIC    FURNACE    FOB    ZINC    SMELTING 

gether  to  the  contact  resistance  between  the  plates,  for  by  calculating  the 
resistance  of  the  carbon  itself  we  find  that  it  would  not  amount  to  more  than 
0.00064  ohm. 

In  order  to  regulate  the  rate  of  generation  of  energy  in  the  resistor 
there  must  be  some  means  of  varying  the  voltage  at  the  terminals  of  the  fur- 

s          ;i 


Kt. 


On,. 


nace.  At  Hohenlohehiitte,  as  well  as  in  the  FitzGerald  and  .Beimie  labora- 
tories, where  these  furnaces  have  been  worked,  this  is  done  by  means  of  a 
transformer  with  several  taps  brought  out  from  the  primary  coils  which 
allow  the  voltage  on  the  secondary  circuit  to  be  varied  from  50  to  100  volts 
in  2.5-volt  steps,  and  from  100  to  200  volts  in  5-volt  steps. 


Scale 


FIG.  4 


It  will  be  seen  that  that  the  weakest  part  in  this  furnace  is  the  carbon 
resistor,  due  to  the  fact  that  if  working  in  an  oxidizing  atmosphere  the 
resistor  will  be  destroyed.  In  the  particular  work  for  which  it  was  designed, 
hower,  there  would  be  no  danger  of  this,  because  the  furnace  is  filled  with 
vapor  of  metallic  zinc.  During  the  process  of  heating  the  furnace,  or  at  any 
time  when  zinc  vapors  were  not  generated,  there  would  be  danger  of  burn- 


FRANCIS    A.    J.    FITZGERALD,    '95 


47 


ing  through  air  leaking  in ;  but  this  is  easily  overcome  by  keeping  a  reducing 
atmosphere  in  the  furnace  slightly  above  external  pressure.  It  has  been 
found  by  actual  experiment  that  a  furnace  of  this  type  running  continuously 
for  two  months  showed  no  appreciable  wear  of  the  resistor. 

The  regulation  of  temperature  in  this  furnace  is  most  satisfactory.  In 
the  Hohenlohehiitte  experiments  thermo  couples  of  pyrometers  were  placed 
in  several  parts  of  the  furnace  to  study  the  temperature  conditions  carefully. 


FTC.  5 

It  was  found  that  the  most  accurate  regulation  of  the  temperature  in  the 
furnace  was  possible,  the  workman  in  charge  adjusting  the  rate  of  genera- 
tion of  energy  in  the  resistor  so  as  to  keep  the  needle  of  the  pyrometer 
stationary. 

The  furnace  is  a  highly  efficient  one.  In  one  of  the  earlier  models, 
where  the  heat  insulation  was  far  from  satisfactory,  careful  determina- 
tions of  all  heat  losses  were  made.  When  working  at  temperatures  between 
1250  degrees  and  1260  degrees  Centigrade  the  total  heat  losses  were 
33  kilowatts,  and  when  working  at  temperatures  between  1400  degrees 
and  1450  degrees  Centigrade  the  heat  losses  were  42  kilowatts.  Conse- 
quently when  the  furnace  is  working  at  full  capacity,  150  kilowatts,  the 
thermal  efficiency  at  1250  degrees  is  78  per  cent,  and  at  1425  degrees  Centi- 
grade is  72  per  cent.  No  exact  determinations  of  the  efficiency  of  later 
models  have  been  made,  but  it  is  known  to  be  much  higher  than  those 
given  above. 


48  AN    ELECTEIC    FURNACE    FOR    ZINC    SMELTING 

The  metallurgical  end  of  the  problem  has  not  been  completely  worked 
out,  but  the  satisfactory  working  of  the  furnace  has  been  clearly  demon- 
strated, and  furnaces  built  on  similar  principles  have  been  used  experi- 
mentally with  great  success  in  the  melting  of  aluminum,  copper,  brass, 
etc.  This  is  thought  to  be  of  some  interest,  as  a  development  in  the  use 
of  electric  furnaces  using  the  heat  generated  by  the  passage  of  an  elec- 
tric current  through  a  resistor.  There  is  a  tendency  in  electric  furnace 
work  to  employ  the  arc,  which  is  often  a  mistake,  because  of  the  difficulty 
in  regulating  the  temperature.  Finally,  the  furnace  described  above, 
from  its  construction,  lends  itself  readily  to  adaptations  which  permit  of 
using  the  combined  heat  effects  of  fuel  and  electricity,  and  it  is  thought 
that  a  great  future  is  in  store  for  furnaces  of  that  type. 


IMPKOVEMENTS  IN  COTTON  BLEACHING 

By  WALTER  S.  WILLIAMS,  '95, 
Textile  Expert,  Arthur  D.  Little,  Inc.,  Boston,  Mass. 

BLEACHING  is  the  whitening  or  removing  of  color  from  a  substance, 
but  in  the  textile  industry  the  term  is  broadened  to  include  the  removal 
of  all  foreign  bodies  and  coloring  matter  adhering  to  or  included  in  the 
original  fiber.  In  the  case  of  fabrics,  it  also  covers  the  elimination  of  all 
material,  such  as  starch,  oil,  and  the  like,  added  either  intentionally  or 
accidentally  in  the  process  of  manufacture. 

Cotton  was  used  for  the  production  of  cloth  thousands  of  years 
before  the  Christian  era,  and  bleaching  of  the  fabrics  so  made  must  have 
been  more  or  less  crudely  performed  even  at  that  early  age.  While  inter- 
esting, the  scope  of  this  paper  will  not  permit  the  tracing  of  the  early 
history  of  the  art.  Ancient  processes  will  therefore  be  cited  only  as  they 
may  have  some  bearing  on  modern  practice. 

An  efficient  process  of  bleaching  requires  a  thorough  understanding 
of  the  nature  and  chemical  composition  of  the  fiber  and  of  the  substances 
to  be  removed,  as  well  as  a  knowledge  of  the  effect  produced  by  the 
different  agents  to  be  employed.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  very  few 
complete  studies  of  the  process  as  a  whole  exist,  and  that  the  few  careful 
investigations  of  different  steps  in  the  procedure  have  not  received  the 
attention  and  consideration  they  deserve  at  the  hands  of  the  practical 
manufacturers.  There  is  no  doubt  that  great  progress  will  be  made  in 
the  improvement  of  both  processes  and  results  by  careful  and  scientific 
research  in  this  field. 

The  first  step  in  the  process  of  bleaching  cloth  for  printing  or  other 
purposes  requiring  a  smooth  face,  is  the  operation  of  singeing,  which 
has  for  its  object  the  removal  of  all  loose  hairs  from  the  surface  of  the 
cloth.  This  step  is  largely  mechanical,  but  requires  close  attention  to 
produce  satisfactory  results  without  damage  to  fiber  or  undue  cost  for 
gas  or  fuel.  The  most  approved  method,  known  as  gas  singeing,  passes 
the  fabric  at  speed  several  times  through  the  flame  of  Bunsen  burners 
extending  the  width  of  the  cloth.  Improvements  in  this  step  must  come 

49 


50  IMPEOVEMENTS  IN  COTTON  BLEACHING 

from  proper  regulation  of  the  gas  mixture  and  mechanical  arrangement  of 
rollers  and  speed  of  travel  to  produce  the  most  efficient  results. 

The  next  operation  is  known  as  steeping  or  grey  washing,  and  consists 
in  passing  the  goods  through  a  washer  or  otherwise  saturating,  preferably 
with  warm  water,  and  allowing  it  to  remain  piled  in  a  warm  room  from 
18  to  24  hours.  This  treatment  removes  any  bodies  soluble  in  water  and, 
as  a  result  of  fermentation,  the  starchy  matters  added  as  sizing. 

Modern  practice  has  made  the  mistake  of  considering  this  operation 
unnecessary  and  omitting  it  entirely  even  when  the  caustic  boil  is  used. 
Lime  probably  removes  the  starchy  matters  completely,  but  it  is  extremely 
doubtful  if  more  than  a  relatively  small  portion  is  extracted  in  the  caustic 
boil.  Steeping  may  be  replaced  by  a  malt  treatment,  using  by  preference 
one  of  the  diastase  preparations  now  on  the  market.  The  solution  is  pre- 
pared by  using  10  to  15  pounds  of  diastase  or  similar  product  to  100  gallons 
of  water  and  warming  to  140°  Fahrenheit.  The  goods  are  wet  out  in  this 
solution  and  the  action  allowed  to  continue  for  15  to  30  minutes,  then 
washed  and  passed  to  the  next  step  in  the  process.  Solubility  of  the  starch 
may  also  be  produced  by  wetting  out  with  very  dilute  hydrochloric  or  sul- 
phuric acid  and  piling  for  a  short  time.  This  process  must  be  carried  out 
with  exetreme  care,  owing  to  danger  of  the  acid  injuring  the  fiber. 

Lime  Boil.  The  cloth  is  saturated  with  milk  of  lime  of  such  a  strength 
that  it  takes  up  about  four  per  cent  of  its  weight  of  CaO,  run  into  one  of 
the  standard  kiers  and  boiled  with  constant  circulation  of  the  liquor 
through  the  goods.  This  operation  decomposes  the  fats  and  similar  matter 
contained  in  the  cloths  and  forms  as  a  result  insoluble  lime  soaps.  These 
latter  are  broken  up  by  the  souring  which  follows,  and  completely  removed 
by  the  subsequent  operations.  In  addition,  the  other  natural  impurities 
of  the  raw  cotton,  as  well  as  starch,  are  so  changed  that  they  either  become 
soluble  or  are  more  easily  acted  upon  by  the  chemicals  employed  in  the  suc- 
ceeding processes. 

The  grey  sours  remove  the  excess  of  lime  and  other  metallic  oxides, 
if  present,  besides  breaking  up  the  insoluble  soaps  formed  on  the  fiber. 

The  lye  boils  continue  the  reactions  already  begun  in  the  lime  boil  and 
further  saponify  and  remove  any  fatty  acids  resulting  from  the  decom- 
position of  the  lime  soaps  in  the  previous  steps. 

Eesin  soap  is  employed  by  some  bleachers  and  is  supposed  to  remove 
certain  indefinite  constituents  of  the  fiber  which  are  said  to  have  a  delete- 
rious effect  on  the  whites  of  prints  and  are  not  fully  removed  by  the  other 
agents  employed. 

Bleaching  or  Chemicing.     The  destruction  of  the  coloring  matter 


WALTEE    S.    WILLIAMS,    '95  51 

now  left  in  the  fabric  is  the  object  of  this  final  step.  Previous  to  the 
nineteenth  century  this  was  always  accomplished  by  the  exposure  of  the 
moist  cloth  to  the  action  of  air  and  sunlight,  and  extensive  bleaching 
greens  formed  an  important  part  of  every  establishment.  The  use  of 
chlorine  for  this  purpose  was  first  proposed  by  Berthollet,  about  17857  but 
its  use  even  after  the  introduction  of  the  hypochlorite  of  lime  was  very 
slow  in  becoming  general.  To-day,  chlorine,  either  as  calcium  or  sodium 
hypochlorite,  far  exceeds  all  other  agents  in  importance  and  in  amount 
used.  With  proper  regulation  of  strength  of  solutions  and  duration  of 
action,  this  bleaching  agent  may  produce  the  most  satisfactory  whites 
without  appreciable  injurious  action  on  the  strength  or  other  desirable 
properties  of  the  fiber. 

The  much-claimed  superiority  of  electrolytic  sodium  hypochlorite 
seems  to  have  been  based  on  the  increased  rate  at  which  the  chlorine  was 
given  off  in  the  presence  of  the  chloride  and  may  be  produced,  if  desired, 
in  bleach  from  other  sources. 

The  use  of  hypochlorite  of  soda  made  from  bleaching  powder  and 
soda  ash  is  highly  to  be  recommended,  and  in  many  cases  will  more  than 
repay  the  increased  cost. 

The  kiers  used  in  bleaching  have  had  much  to  do  with  the  progress 
of  the  art.  Starting  from  open  kettles  heated  by  direct  fire,  the  natural 
tendency  led  to  a  large  open  kier,  but  heated  by  steam.  A  great  improve- 
ment in  this  kier  was  the  introduction  of  a  central  vomit  pipe  taking  the 
liquor  from  the  bottom  of  the  kier  and  throwing  it  by  means  of  a  steam 
ejector  over  the  goods  at  the  top,  thus  producing  a  circulation  through  the 
goods.  The  next  improvement  was  the  introduction  of  the  closed  kier,  by 
means  of  which  the  pressure  and  consequent  temperature  of  boiling  was 
increased. 

A  great  step  in  advance  was  the  advent  of  the  Mather  kier,  which  was 
especially  constructed  by  Messrs.  Mather  &  Platt  to  carry  out  the  process 
devised  by  Horace  Hoechlin.  In  this  system  the  lime  boil  is  entirely  dis- 
pensed with,  and  this,  as  well  as  the  two  lye  boils  of  the  old  process,  are 
replaced  by  a  single  boil  in  caustic  soda  and  resin  soap.  The  kier  used  for 
this  boil  is  a  large  horizontal  cylinder  with  convex  ends,  one  of  which 
may  be  removed  to  allow  the  entrance  of  the  goods.  Suitable  means  are 
provided  for  raising  the  door  and  for  making  the  same  steam-tight  when 
closed.  The  pieces  to  be  bleached  are  piled  on  wagons  made  of  sheet  iron 
with  perforated  bottoms  and  running  on  tracks  leading  inside  the  kiers. 
When  ready  the  wagons  are  run  into  the  kier,  the  door  is  closed,  the  air 
driven  out  by  steam  and  the  circulation  started.  While  the  kier  is  boiling 


52  IMPROVEMENTS  IN  COTTON  BLEACHING 

other  wagons  may  be  loaded,  and  those  already  boiled  unloaded,  thus 
increasing  greatly  the  production  of  a  single  kier. 

The  process  aims  to  subject  the  fabric  to  the  action  of  caustic  liquor 
and  steam  at  the  same  time  and  for  this  purpose  the  amount  of  solution 
used  is  small  compared  with  the  size  of  the  kier.  The  circulation  is  main- 
tained by  means  of  a  centrifugal  pump,  which  takes  the  liquor  from  the 
space  under  the  wagon  and  showers  it  over  the  top  of  the  goods.  It  then 
percolates  through  the  pieces  and  collects  in  the  bottom  of  the  kier,  where 
it  is  heated  by  closed  steam  pipes  and  is  again  taken  up  by  the  pump, 
which  maintains  a  continuous  circulation.  The  kier  may  also  be  heated  by 
the  introduction  of  live  steam,  but  the  resulting  dilution  of  the  liquor  is 
more  objectionable  in  this  than  in  other  kiers. 

Several  ingenious  continuous  processes  have  been  proposed  for  boiling 
cotton  piece  goods,  but  as  yet  no  system  of  this  character  has  succeeded  in 
prolonging  the  treatment  long  enough  to  produce  results  comparable  with 
those  obtained  by  the  more  usual  method. 

The  Thies  kier  and  the  process  of  which  it  forms  a  part,  are  the  result 
of  long,  careful  research  by  Thies  and  Herzig.  By  designing  the  kier  in 
such  a  manner  that  no  steam  comes  in  direct  contact  with  the  liquor  and 
thus  avoiding  the  action  due  to  the  oxygen  contained  in  the  air  always 
present  in  steam,  it  is  possible  to  use  strong  caustic  at  a  high  pressure 
without  fear  of  tendering  the  fabric.  The  latest  form  of  kier  consists  of 
three  parts — the  kier  proper,  the  vacuum  boiler  and  the  superheater.  The 
vacuum  boiler  consists  of  an  upright  cylindrical  vessel  similar  in  size  and 
shape  to  an  ordinary  kier,  while  the  superheater  is  of  the  same  height  as 
the  kier,  but  much  smaller  in  diameter.  The  latter  is  provided  with  closed 
coils  for  heating.  For  the  circulation  and  transfer  of  liquors  use  is  made  of 
a  Grindle  pump.  The  boiling  consists  of  two  parts,  and  the  process  is 
described  by  the  authors  as  follows : 

The  goods  saturated  with  alkali  (liquor  blown  off  from  the  previous 
boiling)  are  packed  into  the  kier,  and  then,  by  means  of  the  Grindle  pump, 
the  old  kier  liquor  is  drawn  from  the  vacuum  boiler  (which  is  quite  full 
to  start  with,  and  closed  at  the  top)  and  sent  in  at  bottom  of  the  kier  until 
the  latter  is  quite  full,  the  air  escaping  through  a  blow-off  valve  at  the  top. 
As  soon  as  the  kier  is  full  the  air  valve  is  closed.  By  pumping  the  liquor 
from  the  vacuum  boiler  into  the  kier  a  vacuum  equal  to  about  ten  pounds  is 
produced  in  the  former  vessel.  A  pipe  provided  with  a  throttle  valve  con- 
nects the  top  of  the  kier  with  the  top  of  the  vacuum  boiler.  This  valve  is 
now  slightly  opened,  so  that  a  circulation  of  the  liquor  takes  place,  while 


WALTER    S.    WILLIAMS,     '95  53 

any  air  contained  in  the  kier  rises  with  the  liquor,  passes  through  the 
throttle  valve  into  the  vacuum  boiler,  where  the  liquor  falls  to  the  bottom 
and  expands  into  the  vacuum.  The  pressure  in  the  kier  is  now  gradually 
increased  to  three  atmospheres  by  choking  the  valve,  when  any  air  -remain- 
ing in  the  goods  is  mechanically  dissolved  out  of  the  goods  (air  being  more 
soluble  in  water  under  pressure)  and  transferred  to  the  vacuum  boiler. 
After  the  air  in  the  vacuum  boiler  has  been  expelled  steam  is  turned  on  in 
the  superheater  and  the  bowking  continued  for  two  hours  at  45  Ibs. 
pressure.  The  pump  is  now  stopped,  the  steam  turned  off  and  the  liquor 
blown  off  under  its  own  pressure.  Fresh  lye,  consisting  of  caustic  soda  at 
6  to  7 1/0°  Twaddle  and  the  resin  soap,  is  now  run  into  the  kier  (which  is 
free  from  air),  the  pump  set  in  motion  again,  steam  turned  on  in  the 
superheater  and  the  bowking  proper  continued  for  six  hours  at  45  Ibs. 
pressure. 

As  free  hypochlorous  acid  is  much  more  efficient  as  a  bleaching  agent 
than  any  of  its  salts,  we  find  many  attempts  to  make  use  of  this  property. 

Mather  and  Thompson  pass  the  cloth  continuously  through  closed 
chambers  in  which  the  pieces  are  run  through  an  atmosphere  of  C02  after 
being  saturated  with  the  ordinary  bleaching  solution.  Acetic  acid  vapors 
have  also  been  used  in  the  same  manner.  The  addition  of  small  amounts  of 
sulphuric  or  hydrochloric  acid  or  of  acetic  or  formic  acid  to  the  chemic 
solution,  will  produce  similar  results,  and  the  improved  action  of  the  liquors 
will  be  at  once  apparent. 

Chlorine  in  cotton  bleaching  may  be  replaced  by  other  oxidizing 
agents  and  will  no  doubt  be  superseded  at  some  later  date  by  some  agent 
acting  less  injuriously  on  the  fiber  itself.  Such  a  body  is  found  in  sodium 
or  hydrogen  peroxide,  and  it  is  only  the  higher  cost  which  prevents  their 
more  general  use.  For  cotton  and  silk  goods,  laces  and  other  special  fab- 
rics, it  finds  extensive  application. 

Drawing  freely  from  all  published  information,  especially  the  results  of 
the  researches  of  Koechlin,  Thies  and  Scheurer,  the  following  process  has 
been  evolved  as  a  working  compromise  of  the  theoretical  and  practical. 

The  goods  are  marked  and  sewed  as  usual  and  piled  on  trucks.  They 
are  then  run  through  the  gas  singer  and  directly  through  a  lukewarm  solu- 
tion of  diastafor  and  into  a  continuous  piling  chute.  This  latter  is  a  more 
or  less  complicated  inclined  trough,  so  arranged  that  while  cloth  is  entering 
at  the  upper  end  and  leaving  at  the  lower,  a  large  amount  of  slack  cloth 
fills  the  length  of  the  incline  and  allows  time  for  the  action  to  take  place. 
To  increase  the  time  of  action,  several  of  the  chutes  may  be  arranged  in 


54  IMPEOVEMENTS  IN  COTTON  BLEACHING 

series,  the  cloth  passing  over  a  reel  between  each.  From  this  step  the 
goods  pass  directly  to  a  small  washer  and  are  then  squeezed  and  piled  in 
a  bin.  As  wanted  they  are  drawn  through  a  saturating  machine,  where 
they  are  impregnated  with  caustic  soda  at  3°  Twaddle,  containing  0.5  per 
cent  sodium  bisulphite  solutions  and  packed  directly  in  the  boiling  kier. 
This  kier  should  be  of  the  vertical  pressure  type  with  outside  vomit  pipes 
and  pump  circulation.  The  perforated  false  bottom  should  be  conical  in 
shape  and  so  arranged  as  to  give  a  much  larger  space  at  the  bottom  than 
is  usually  allowed,  and  should  be  provided  with  both  closed  and  open  steam 
pipes.  The  closed  coil  should  be  sufficient  to  maintain  the  kier  at  boiling 
during  circulation  after  that  temperature  has  been  reached,  and  must  be 
provided  with  a  suitable  trap  to  remove  the  hot  water  and  return  it  to  the 
hot  well  or  feed-water  heater.  The  goods  are  evenly  plaited  and  tramped  in 
the  kiers  by  boys  in  the  usual  manner,  to  within  2%  or  3  ft.  of  the  top. 
The  air  is  next  replaced  by  admitting  steam  and  a  charge  composed  of  3° 
Twaddle  caustic  containing  3  per  cent  of  resin  soap  run  in  to  cover  the 
floods.  The  kier  is  brought  to  a  boil,  with  the  open  coil  at  a  pressure  of 
.5  Ibs.,  a  small  vent  pipe  being  open  to  allow  the  escape  of  air. 

When  the  goods  are  boiling,  the  open  pipe  is  nearly  closed  and  the 
boiling  is  continued  for  six  to  eight  hours,  with  the  use  of  the  closed  coil 
as  far  as  possible. 

The  charge  is  washed  in  the  kier,  care  being  taken  to  prevent  access 
of  air  to  the  hot  fabric.  The  pieces  are  then  run  out  of  the  kier  through  a 
washer,  squeezed  and  returned  to  another  kier  where  the  boil  is  repeated, 
but  with  the  omission  of  the  resin  soap. 

Experience  seems  to  indicate  that  two  boils  are  necessary  to  produce 
a  thorough  bleaching  without  overtreatment  in  the  subsequent  steps. 

The  goods  are  next  run  through  the  chemic  and  piled  in  open  bins  for 
two  to  six  hours.  The  best  results  are  produced  at  the  greatest  economy 
by  the  use  of  hypochlorite  of  soda  prepared  as  already  described,  but  with 
experience  and  care  very  satisfactory  results  are  obtained  by  the  use  of 
hypochlorite  of  lime  solution  at  %  to  3°  Twaddle. 

Continuous  processes  which  subject  the  fabric  for  a  short  period  to  a 
very  strong  chlorine  solution  or  which  sour  the  cloth  after  chemicing  with- 
out previous  washing  are  necessarily  injurious  to  the  fiber  and  unsatisfac- 
tory in  other  important  respects. 

The  pieces  after  lying  exposed  to  the  air  for  a  suitable  length  of 
time  are  washed,  soured  through  sulphuric  at  1  to  2°  Twaddle,  washed 
twice  and  are  then  ready  for  opening,  drying  and  finishing  as  desired. 


WALTER    S.    WILLIAMS,    >95  55 

Bleaching  to-day  is  not  an  exact  science  and  depends  for  success  upon 
experience  combined  with  close  observation  and  understanding  of  the  vari- 
ous processes.  If  the  heads  of  the  industry  in  this  country  could  be 
brought  together  for  an  interchange  of  experience  and  frank  discussion  of 
the  most  promising  lines  of  research,  a  great  advance  would  be  produced  in 
the  art,  but  in  any  case  we  may  expect  sooner  or  later  more  economical  and 
efficient  processes  to  replace  many  of  those  now  in  use. 


THE  WORK  OF  ENGINEERS  IN  THE  GAS  INDUSTRY. 

By  FREDERICK  P.  ROYCE,  '90, 
Vice-President  Stone  &  Webster  Management  Association,  Boston,  Mass. 

THE  business  of  manufacturing  and  distributing  gas  is  older  than  that 
of  any  other  of  the  public  utilities  with  the  exception  of  that  of  distribut- 
ing water.  Early  in  the  nineteenth  century  companies  were  established 
and  in  active  operation  in  England.  Many  of  the  companies  still  doing 
business  in  this  country  were  organized  and  in  operation  prior  to  1850.  It 
was  not  until  a  much  later  date,  however,  that  results  due  to  the  efforts  of 
scientifically  trained  men  were  generally  apparent.  The  first  dry  distilla- 
tion of  coal  producing  gas  for  commercial  purposes  was  accomplished  in 
retorts  made  of  iron  placed  in  a  horizontal  position,  the  heat  necessary 
being  directly  applied  by  furnaces  placed  underneath  the  retorts.  With  the 
exception  of  the  substitution  in  the  retort  of  firebrick  material  for  cast 
iron,  this  type  of  retort,  with  slight  modification,  was  used  for  many  years 
and  in  some  small  plants  is  used  to-day.  In  the  early  days  of  the  industry 
it  was  found  that  with  little  effort  sufficient  gas  could  be  produced  and  sold 
at  a  high  price  for  lighting  purposes  to  furnish  a  satisfactory  return  on  the 
capital  invested.  At  the  time  little  or  no  consideration  had  been  given  to 
the  relations  of  the  companies  and  the  public,  which  are  now  properly 
regarded  as  of  great  importance.  It  was  not  understood  that  to  get  the  best 
results  for  all,  these  companies  should  be  operated  as  regulated  monopolies 
and  the  earnings  of  the  companies  were  not  sufficiently  large  to  invite  gen- 
eral competition.  These  gas  companies  then  furnished  all  illumination  not 
produced  by  lamps  or  candles. 

Under  such  circumstances  there  was  apparently  little  incentive  to  the 
engineer  to  enter  the  business  and  apply  a  scentific  knowledge  to  the  reduc- 
tion of  the  cost  of  the  plant  or  of  operating  it.  As  the  time  went  on,  these 
conditions  changed  and  in  the  early  eighties  a  very  strong  competition  was 
introduced  through  the  development  of  the  electric  lighting  companies 
which  for  a  time  threatened  to  destroy  the  business  of  the  gas  companies, 
and  in  some  places  actually  did  reduce  it  materially.  It  was  then  absolutely 
necessary  that  the  owners  of  these  properties  should  devise  means  of 

56 


FEEDEEICK   P.    EOYCE,    '90  57 

reducing  their  operating  cost  and  to  do  a  much  larger  business  at  a  smaller 
rate  of  profit.  This  could  only  be  done  through  the  employment  of 
trained  engineers.  At  that  time  coal  gas  was  made  almost  exclusively,  and 
the  largest  element  of  cost  in  the  production  of  the  gas  was  in  the  carboniz- 
ation of  the  coal.  There  has  always  been  a  saying  to  the  effect  that  money 
was  made  or  lost  in  the  retort  house,  and  it  has  been  in  the  retort  house  that 
the  greatest  improvement  has  been  effected.  As  has  been  said,  the  retorts 
were  then  of  the  direct-fired  type,  the  coal  to  be  carbonized  was  placed  in 
the  retorts  by  hand  and  the  coke  was  removed  in  the  same  way.  It  was 
then  considered  good  practice  if  30,000  ft.  of  gas  could  be  made  in  a 
day  by  each  man  employed  in  the  retort  house.  This  hand  firing  was  slow, 
resulting  in  a  serious  waste  of  gas  and  loss  of  heat. 

The  first  step  toward  improvement  was  the  introduction  of  machinery 
to  charge  the  retorts  and  remove  the  coke.  Notwithstanding  the  extremely 
difficult  conditions  under  which  this  apparatus  must  be  operated  it  has 
been  on  the  whole  very  successful.  Numerous  types  of  machinery  have 
been  built  applicable  to  the  smallest  or  the  largest  works.  At  about  the 
same  time  the  regenerative  setting  of  retort  benches  was  designed  and  put 
in  successful  use.  In  this  a  generator  is  made  a  part  of  the  bench  setting 
and  used  to  produce  carbon  monoxide  gas  through  partial  combustion,  using 
a  limited  amount  of  primary  air.  This  monoxide  gas  is  distributed  as 
desired  through  the  bench  and  brought  in  contact  with  secondary  air  which 
has  been  preheated  by  passing  through  flues  adjacent  to  other  flues 
through  which  the  products  of  combustion  are  carried  to  the  chimney.  The 
carbon  monoxide  being  fired  as  it  combines  with  the  secondary  air  pro- 
duces a  high  heat  which  can  be  satisfactorily  controlled,  assuring  a  uniform 
temperature  throughout  the  various  retorts  of  the  setting. 

This  type  of  bench  was  followed  by  the  inclined  retort  setting.  In 
this  bench  the  retorts  are  set  at  an  angle  of  approximately  31  degrees  from 
the  horizontal,  the  charge  being  introduced  from  the  top  and  distributed 
through  the  retort  by  gravity,  the  coke  falling  from  the  bottom  mouth- 
piece as  desired. 

The  principal  advantage  of  this  type  of  setting  is  in  the  avoidance  of 
the  use  of  expensive  charging  and  drawing  machinery.  The  inclined  set- 
ting was  followed  in  a  few  years  by  the  vertical  type.  It  is  interesting  to 
note  that  although  experiments  were  made  with  vertical  retorts  in  the  very 
early  days  of  the  gas  industry,  it  was  not  until  three  or  four  years  ago  that 
engineers  in  Germany  were  able  to  build  and  operate  them  successfully  on 
a  commercial  scale.  The  first  successful  installations  of  this  sort  were 
designed  for  intermittent  charging  and  discharging.  Little  machinery  was 


58  THE    WORK    OF    ENGINEERS    IN    THE    GAS    INDUSTRY 

required  to  operate  them  and,  due  to  the  fact  that  the  retort  was  completely 
filled  with  coal,  a  marked  improvement  was  noted  in  the  character  of  the 
by-products.  As  the  weight  of  the  coal  in  the  vertical  retorts  is  supported 
principally  by  the  lower  mouthpiece  rather  than  the  retort  itself,  the 
mouthpiece  being  easily  repaired  as  needed,  there  should  be  and  appar- 
ently is  an  improvement  in  the  life  of  the  setting. 

A  more  recent  development  in  the  vertical  retort  setting  has  been 
accomplished  by  the  perfecting  of  charging  and  discharging  apparatus,  by 
means  of  which  a  continuous  carbonization  of  the  coal  is  effected.  A  still 
further  improvement  in  the  carbonization  of  coal  in  large  plants  has  been 
effected  by  the  successful  design  and  operation  of  the  so-called  coking 
chamber.  This  in  reality  is  a  development  of  the  inclined  retort,  but 
instead  of  using  a  comparatively  small  retort  which  would  contain  a  charge 
probably  not  to  exceed  one  thousand  pounds  in  weight,  a  large  chamber, 
designed  to  contain  and  carbonize  six  or  seven  tons,  is  used.  The  bottom 
of  this  chamber  is  built  at  an  angle  similar  to  that  of  the  inclined  retort, 
so  that  the  coke  slides  freely  from  it  when  the  mouthpiece,  which  is  really 
the  entire  lower  end  of  the  chamber,  is  removed. 

Through  these  developments  the  cost  of  labor  has  been  greatly  reduced, 
and  whereas  with  the  early  benches  there  was  a  production  of  30,000  cu. 
ft.  per  man  per  day,  with  the  coking  chambers  a  production  of  150,000 
cu.  ft.  per  man  has  been  made  possible.  At  the  same  time  the  yield  of 
gas  from  a  pound  of  coal  measured  by  the  product  of  its  volume  and  candle 
power  has  been  increased  25  per  cent.  The  amount  of  fuel  required 
to  carbonize  the  coal,  an  important  item  of  cost,  has  been  very  greatly 
reduced.  The  capacity  of  unit  has  been  increased  to  such  an  extent  that 
much  less  space  is  required  to  produce  a  given  amount  of  gas,  which  results 
in  a  reduction  of  plant  cost.  The  quantity  of  certain  by-products  has  been 
increased  and  the  character  of  these  by-products  much  improved.  This  has 
been  particularly  noteworthy  in  connection  with  the  vertical  type  of  setting. 
The  coke  made  in  the  vertical  retorts  and  in  the  coking  chambers  is  much 
the  same  in  character  as  that  made  in  the  beehive  oven.  It  is  stronger  and 
consequently  a  smaller  percentage  of  it  is  in  the  comparatively  worthless 
form  of  screenings  or  breeze.  A  larger  percentage  of  ammonia  is  recovered. 
The  tar  produced  is  better  and  comparatively  free  from  lampblack  and 
other  impurities. 

It  is  regrettable  that  most  of  the  improvements  noted  in  retort  house 
operation  have  been  due  to  the  efforts  of  foreign  engineers.  The  charging 
and  drawing  machinery  was  first  perfected  in  England.  The  inclined  and 
vertical  retort  benches  for  intermittent  carbonization  were  developed  by 


FREDERICK   P.    EOYCE,    >90  59 

German  engineers  and  the  continuous  system  of  carbonization  with  vertical 
retorts  is  due  principally  to  the  efforts  of  Englishmen.  To  American 
engineers,  however,  there  may  be  fairly  attributed  the  development  of  the 
water-gas  process.  The  Lowe  type  of  apparatus  developed  in  thisjcountry 
is  now  the  standard  throughout  the  world  where  water  gas  is  made.  It  is 
estimated  that  more  than  one-half  of  the  total  production  in  this  country 
is  of  water  gas.  This  has  been  of  great  importance  in  connection  with  the 
production  of  coal  gas.  The  cost  of  the  latter  is  directly  dependent  on  the 
price  received  for  residuals,  and  it  is  probable  that  if  coal  gas  only  were 
made  in  this  country  the  increased  supply  of  residuals  would  be  in  excess  of 
the  demand,  so  that  the  average  price  received  for  them  would  be 
reduced,  and  consequently  the  cost  of  producing  the  coal  gas  would  be 
increased. 

It  is  now  common  practice  in  America  to  make  both  water  gas  and 
coal  gas  in  the  same  works.  The  water  gas  can  be  made  of  any  desired 
candle  power  and  mixed  with  the  coal  gas,  making  it  possible  to  furnish  a 
commercial  product  of  almost  any  quality  desired.  The  improvements  in 
the  art,  however,  have  not  been  confined  to  the  generating  house.  The 
quality  of  the  gas  depends  in  great  measure  on  the  method  used  to  clean 
and  purify  it.  The  importance  of  this  may  be  seen  when  it  is  realized  that 
the  so-called  impurities  in  the  gas,  which  are  harmful  as  a  part  of  the  gas, 
are  themselves  valuable  by-products  when  removed.  To  obtain  the  best 
results  the  temperature  of  the  gas  must  be  made  to  pass  through  wide 
ranges,  during  the  different  steps  of  cleansing  and  purification.  Engineers 
have  determined  the  correct  temperature  for  each  stage  and  have  devised 
apparatus  by  which  these  conditions  can  be  controlled. 

This  work  of  the  engineers  has  produced  a  great  decrease  in  the  cost 
of  gas.  Twenty  years  ago  it  was  possible  to  reduce  the  price  of  gas  to  a 
point  where  it  would  be  made  to  compete  successfully  with  coal  and  other 
fuels,  thus  greatly  increasing  the  market  for  it  and  definitely  establishing 
the  stability  of  the  industry.  Some  companies  which  sold  gas  at  as  high  a 
rate  as  $4  per  1000  cu.  ft.  in  1870  are  to-day  able  to  produce  and  sell  it 
at  less  than  $1  per  1000  cu.  ft.  and  still  make  a  fair  return  on  the  necessary 
investment.  This  great  decrease  is  the  result  of  the  reduced  cost  of  produc- 
tion and  of  the  largely  increased  output  that  followed  it. 

Through  the  development  of  the  Welsbach  mantle  it  is  now  possible 
to  get  much  more  light  with  a  given  amount  of  gas  than  could  ever  be 
obtained  with  the  open  burner  and  at  the  same  time  to  use  gas  of  a  low 
candle  power,  thus  materially  reducing  its  cost.  This  has  helped  to  place 


00  THE    WORK    OF    ENGINEERS    IN    THE    GAS   INDUSTRY 

the  gas  companies  in  a  position  where  they  can  successfully  compete  with 
the  electric  companies  for  a  large  portion  of  the  lighting  business. 

The  field  at  the  present  time  is  a  most  excellent  one  for  the  engineer. 
There  are  still  opportunities  to  improve  the  methods  of  carbonization  of 
coal  and  the  generation  of  water  gas.  The  highest  efficiencies  in  these 
departments  have  been  by  no  means  reached.  The  actual  chemical  reactions 
in  the  process  of  carbonization  and  the  effect  on  them  of  various  tempera- 
tures offers  a  subject  for  further  profitable  study.  There  is  opportunity  to 
increase  the  quantity  of  residuals  recovered  and  to  improve  their  quality. 
There  is  also  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  market  for  these  residuals  can 
be  substantially  increased.  A  small  percentage  of  saving  in  the  cost  of  the 
product  is  quickly  reflected  in  the  year's  earnings.  A  company  selling 
500,000,000  cu.  ft.  per  annum  is  one  of  medium  size,  and  yet  a  reduc- 
tion of  1  cent  per  1000  cu.  ft.  in  the  cost  of  manufacture  or  of  distributing 
the  gas  means  a  saving  to  that  company  of  $5000  per  annum.  It  has  been 
demonstrated  that  gas  can  be  manufactured  by  a  large  plant  and  distributed 
by  means  of  a  high  pressure  service  to  smaller  communities  many  miles 
distant,  where  it  can  be  sold  at  a  price  much  less  than  that  at  which  it 
could  be  manufactured  and  distributed  locally.  This  is  a  development 
which  is  certain  to  be  of  future  importance,  but  calls  for  more  engineering 
skill  than  it  has  received.  Gas  is  becoming  used  more  freely  for  industrial 
purposes,  and  this  field  should  have  the  most  careful  consideration.  The 
man  who  is  best  equipped  to  improve  and  develop  the  gas  business  should 
have  the  knowledge  of  chemical  and  mechanical  engineering  that  can  be 
obtained  at  the  Institute, 'and  for  such  a  man  there  should  be  a  .successful 
future  in  this  industry. 


THE  CHEMIST  IN  THE  SERVICE  OF  THE  RAILROAD. 

By  H.  E.  SMITH,  '87, 

Chemist  and  Engineer  of  Tests,  The  Lake  Shore  &  Michigan  Southern  Railway 

Company,  Ohio. 

AMONG  the  industries  of  the  country,  the  railroads  are  probably  the 
largest,  whether  they  be  judged  from  the  standpoint  of  investment 
required,  territory  covered,  or  men  employed.  Considered  as  manufactur- 
ing establishments,  the  railroads  use  as  materials,  iron  and  steel  of  all  kinds, 
brass,  bronze  and  babbitt,  wood  and  timber  of  all  kinds,  stone,  brick, 
cement,  oils  and  paints,  and  a  great  number  of  materials  of  lesser  import- 
ance. The  manufacturing  process  covers  various  departments  of  field 
engineering,  power  production,  shop  work  and  metallurgy.  The  finished 
product  is  the  transportation  of  passengers  and  freight. 

The  need  of  the  civil,  the  mechanical  and  the  electrical  engineer  is 
obvious.  With  the  increasing  development  has  come  the  need  of  the  chem- 
ist, and,  beginning  nearly  thirty  years  ago,  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of 
Technology  has  at  various  times  furnished  chemists  for  this  service. 

As  has  already  been  partially  indicated,  the  field  for  the  chemist  in  rail- 
road service  is  very  wide.  Early  in  the  construction  of  a  first-class  road  the 
chemist  is  in  (demand  for  the  testing  of  cement,  to  insure  sound  and  durable 
concrete  bridges  and  other  structures;  in  the  selection  of  ballast  stone  of 
such  composition  and  physical  properties  that  it  will  withstand  the  weather 
and  the  impact  and  wear  of  service.  Timber  for  cross  ties  now  commands 
such  a  price,  that  economy  necessitates  preservative  treatment  by  carefully 
tested  and  regulated  materials  and  processes.  Rails  must  be  of ;  such  com- 
position that  they  will  resist  wear  in  the  greatest  possible  degree,  yet  be 
free  from  brittleness. 

The  problem  of  boiler- water  supply,  especially  that  for  locomotives,  is 
of  very  great  importance.  An  average  modern  locomotive  is  a  complete 
power  plant  of  2000  horse-power,  mounted  on  wheels,  and  contained  within 
a  space  only  a  fraction  of  that  required  by  a  stationary  power  plant  of  the 
same  capacity.  About  one  hundred  gallons  of  water  are  evaporated  per 
mile  traveled.  In  many  parts  of  the  country  the  only  water  available  is  of 

61 


62  THE    CHEMIST    IN    THE    SERVICE    OF    THE    RAILROAD 

such  quality  that  economy  in  operation  requires  its  chemical  purification. 
This  brings  to  the  chemist  the  problem  of  carrying  out  chemical  reactions 
on  a  large  scale,  and  in  extremely  dilute  solutions,  yet  with  very  close 
adjustment  and  at  low  cost. 

Iron  castings  are  used  in  such  quantities  that  railroad  companies  fre- 
quently make  their  own.  The  pig  irons  and  the  coke  must  be  tested  to 
ensure  proper  quality.  The  mixtures  must  be  adjusted  to  secure  the  neces- 
sary product.  Car  wheels  must  be  tough  and  strong,  yet  very  hard  on  the 
circumference,  to  resisit  wear.  Machinery  castings  must  be  strong  yet 
machine  easily.  Packing  rings  must  be  very  resilient.  Yet  in  all  mixtures 
economy  must  be  practiced  by  using  up  scrap. 

The  proper  selection  of  steel  for  efficient  and  economical  service  is  a 
constant  problem.  Special  alloy  steels  either  with  or  without  special  heat 
treatment  or  other  manipulation  are  used  in  increasing  quantities.  It  is 
necessary  to  make  very  frequent  and  systematic  chemical  and  physical  tests 
to  ensure  uniform  and  satisfactory  quality. 

Large  quantities  of  brass  or  bronze,  mostly  in  the  form  of  bearing 
metal,  also  babbitt  for  the  same  purpose,  are  required.  The  prices  of  the 
constitutent  metals  vary  from  five  to  thirty-five  cents  per  pound,  which  con- 
stitutes a  strong  temptation  to  substitute  the  cheaper  for  the  more  expen- 
sive, so  far  as  possible.  The  chemist  must  be  called  upon  to  detect  such 
substitution  and  to  determine  whether  the  constituents  have  been  properly 
proportioned.  Scrap  must  be  utilized,  and  the  chemist  is  needed  to  test  the 
remelted  metal  and  adjust  its  composition  to  standard  figures. 

Paints  are  used  in  large  quantities  on  cars,  buildings,  bridges,  etc.  The 
pigments  are  frequently  adulterated  with  inferior,  inert  or  injurious  miner- 
als, the  linseed  oil  with  petroleum  and  inferior  vegetable  oils,  and  the 
turpentine  with  benzine.  The  proportions  of  the  specified  ingredients 
must  also  be  checked.  Lubricating  and  burning  oils  constitute  another 
important  class  of  material  for  study,  to  secure  the  proper  selection  of 
grades  and  maintenance  of  satisfactory  standards. 

The  list  of  articles  which  come  up  for  occasional  attention  includes 
soaps,  greases,  roofing  materials,  fireproofing  materials,  various  chemicals, 
dyestuffs,  inks,  grinding  and  polishing  materials,  disinfectants,  rope,  cot- 
ton and  woolen  waste,  fuel,  etc.,  etc. 

Not  only  must  all  these  materials  be  examined  after  purchase,  but 
many  of  them  must  be  bought  on  definite  specifications  in  order  to  secure 
the  desired  quality  under  competitive  bids.  The  writing  of  the  specifica- 
tions falls  chiefly  upon  the  chemist.  To  this  end  he  must  study  carefully 
the  needs  of  the  service,  the  quality  of  material  best  adapted  to  meet  those 


H.    E.    SMITH,    '87  63 

needs,  as  well  as  the  quality  available  on  the  market,  and  finally  the  methods 
of  test  best  adapted  to  determine  the  quality.  This  exhaustive  study  may 
also  be  the  means  of  ultimately  developing  or  improving  various  industries, 
so  that  it  is  beneficial  not  only  to  the  consumer,  but  to  the  producer. 

It  is  natural  that  the  chemist  should  also  be  required  to  study  various 
methods  and  processes  of  operation  in  different  parts  of  the  railway  ser- 
vice, with  a  view  to  the  economy  of  material  or  labor  or  to  increasing  the 
efficiency  of  the  service. 

In  all  the  work  above  described  the  investigator  must  be  more  than  a 
chemist.  He  must  be  something  of  a  geologist,  a  physicist,  a  metallurgist, 
an  electrician  or  a  sanitarian  as  the  case  requires,  and  withal  must  have 
the  ability  to  predict  the  effect  from  the  cause,  or  to  trace  back  from  the 
effect  to  the  cause. 

It  is  for  these  reasons  that  the  broad  and  comprehensive  training 
offered  by  the  Institute  of  Technology  is  especially  adapted  to  fit  men  to  take 
up  scientific  work  for  the  modern  railway. 


THE  CONTROL  OF  THERMAL  OPERATIONS  AND  THE 
BUREAU  OF   STANDARDS. 

GEOEGE  K.  BURGESS,  '96, 
Associate  Physicist,  Bureau  of  Standards,  Washington,  D.  C. 

SINCE  its  creation  in  1901,  the  Bureau  of  Standards  has  been  actively 
engaged,  in  so  far  as  its  resources  would  permit,  while  developing  many 
other  lines  of  work,  in  serving  the  United  States  in  the  capacity  of  an 
adviser  on  best  values  and  available  methods  in  the  many  lines  of  thermal 
measurements.  This  activity  has  necessitated  the  undertaking  of  a  consid- 
erable number  of  experimental  investigations,  the  carrying  on  of  a  very 
extended  correspondence,  and  the  execution  of  many  tests  of  instruments 
and  materials.  The  Bureau  does  not  impose  its  authority  in  thermal  stand- 
ards on  anyone,  and  any  prestige  in  this  field  it  may  possess  must  rest  on  the 
reasonableness  of  its  suggestions. 

The  temperature  scale  of  the  International  Bureau  has  been  repro- 
duced here  to  O.°002  C.  in  the  interval  0  to  100°  C.  or  to  as  close  as  tempera- 
tures are  known  within  this  interval;  and  for  the  remainder  of  the  tem- 
perature range,  for  which  there  is  no  international  authority,  a  temperature 
scale  has  been  constructed  which,  except  perhaps  for  the  very  highest  tem- 
peratures, is  in  substantial  agreement  with  those  maintained  by  the  German 
and  British  laboratories.  This  temperature  scale  of  the  Bureau  of  Stand- 
ards is  reproducible  to  about  O.°03  at  500°,  1°  at  1000°,  and  10°  at  2000°  C., 
and  has  required  for  its'  establishment  a  great  deal  of  experimental  work, 
and  advantage  has  of  course  been  taken  also  of  similar  work  elsewhere. 

Questions  arising  in  the  Departments  of  the  Government  requiring 
advice  or  decisions  on  the  physical  properties  of  materials  are  usually 
referred  for  solution  to  the  Bureau,  and  this  demand  for  its  services  and 
advice  is  growing  at  a  greatly  accelerated  rate  for  tests  of  various  kinds  of 
temperature-measuring  instruments,  for  the  formulation  of  specifications, 
for  the  purchase  of  thermal  apparatus,  and  of  materials  on  which  thermal 
tests  may  be  made  to  control  their  quality,  and  for  the  carrying  out  of 
specific  experimental  investigations  on  materials,  processes,  or  methods 
involved  in  the  solution  of  some  problem  in  which  one  or  another  depart- 
ment of  the  Government  is  interested. 

64 


GEORGE    K.    BURGESS,    ;96  65 

To  mention  a  lew  examples  among  many  of  the  control  thus  exercised, 
the  purchase  of  clinical  thermometers  for  two  of  the  departments  as  well  as 
of  the  various  kinds  of  thermometers  of  several  of  the  scientific  Bureaus,  is 
based  on  specifications  drawn  up  by  the  Bureau  and  its  testing  of  the 
instruments  before  their  acceptance;  and  the  knowledge  on  the  ^part  of 
manufacturers  that  a  bid  may  be  rejected  due  to  the  findings  of  a  disinter- 
ested, competent  authority  is  not  detrimental  to  the  class  of  instrument 
submitted  in  competition  1'or  purchase  in  this  way. 

The  purchase  of  refractory  brick  by  the  Panama  Canal  Commission  is 
also  based  on  such  tests,  as  well  as  that  of  many  other  materials. 

The  decision  as  to  whether  contested  materials  are  innammable  and, 
therefore,  to  be  barred  from  carriage  on  passenger  steamers,  is  left  to  the 
Bureau,  and  such  decision  sometimes  entails  an  unexpected  amount  of 
experimentation. 

Investigations  of  lubricating  and  illuminating  oils  and  of  the  types  of 
apparatus  used  in  the  testing  of  them  are  being  carried  out  with  several 
objects  in  view,  such  as  the  drawing  of  better  government  specifications,  the 
furnishing  of  data  for  better  and  more  uniform  testing  methods,  both  in 
this  country  and  by  international  agreement.  The  tests  of  viscosity,  for 
example,  are  now  on  a  purely  empirical  basis ;  different  countries  use  differ- 
ent instruments,  and  in  the  United  States  there  are  several  incommensurable 
instruments  in  common  use.  It  is  hoped  to  reduce  all  such  measurements 
to  a  common  basis. 

The  Bureau  has  been  asked  to  take  part  in  the  work  of  several  inter- 
national or  national  societies  or  committees,  usually  with  the  object  of 
establishing  by  experimentation  the  necessary  conditions  or  specifications 
for  the  carrying  out  of  some  method  of  testing  or  standardizing  materials, 
methods  or  instruments.  We  have  not  been  able  to  meet  all  the  demands  of 
this  kind  in  the  field  of  thermal  operations,  but  have  limited  ourselves  to 
some  of  the  problems  that  are  in  the  most  unsatisfactory  condition.  Besides 
the  oil  question,  which  is  very  troublesome,  the  subject  of  combustion  and 
gas  calorimetry  has  been  attacked  from  the  foundation,  and  although  less 
than  two  years  have  been  spent  on  this,  we  not  infrequently  receive  praise- 
worthy letters  of  a  slightly  ironic  cast  asking  for  our  final  results  on  this  or 
that  phase  of  the  problem.  Accepting  Regnault's  standard,,  we  still  have 
five  years  to  make  good  on  this  problem,  however.  An  outsider  does  not 
always  realize  that  no  one  is  more  impatient  to  finish  his  problem  than  the 
worker  himself,  but  where  fundamental  standards  are  concerned  .the  worker 
is  bound  to  be  more  conservative  than  his  severest  critics. 

In  this  calorimetric  work  it  has  been  necessary,  for  example,  to  design 


66  THEEMAL  OPERATIONS  AND  BUREAU  OF  STANDARDS 

and  install  a  complete  plant  for  the  production  of  pure  oxygen,  new  calorim- 
eters, resistance  thermometers  and  accessory  apparatus  capable  of  giving 
results  of  the  highest  accuracy  attainable  at  the  present  time;  and  the 
thermal  constants  must  be  determined  with  different  sets  of  apparatus  and 
checked  by  several  methods. 

This  calorimetric  investigation  is  very  far-reaching  and  involves,  for 
example,  the  heat  values  to  be  accepted  as  standard  in  this  country  for  the 
constituent  components  of  gas  burned  in  every  city  and  town  and,  therefore, 
the  ultimate  basis  on  which  the  price  of  gas  as  a  fuel  should  be  fixed.  The 
heats  of  combustion  which  are  being  determined  of  those  substances  suit- 
able for  calibrating  bomb  calorimeters,  in  a  similar  way,  will  define"  the  ulti- 
mate units  on  the  basis  of  which  coal  and  oil  fuels  should  be  bought  and 
sold.  .Concrete  calorimetric  standards  are  realized  in  the  form  of  certified 
samples  of  pure  materials  of  known  heat  value,  which  are  distributed  to 
interested  parties.  The  various  types  of  calorimeter  are  also  being  com- 
pared, and  incidentally  to  the  whole  investigation,  improved  methods  of 
measurement  and  new  instruments  have  been  developed. 

To  the  refrigerating  industries  we  have  furnished  after  elaborate 
experimentation  the  correct  values  of  the  specific  heat  of  brine  at  low  tem- 
peratures, a  constant  of  very  great  importance  to  them.  There  is  great  need 
for  further  systematization  of  units  in  this  field  as  well  as  the  better  deter- 
mination of  other  constants  fundamental  to  refrigeration.  The  question  of 
these  units  will  be  gone  over  very  carefully  at  the  next  International  Con- 
gress of  Refrigeration,  which  meets  in  this  country  next  autumn. 

The  relation  of  the  Bureau  to  the  manufacturers  of  precision  instru- 
ments is  very  close,  manifold  and,  in  general,  most  cordial.  When  it  is 
remembered  that  previous  to  1901  there  was  no  generally  recognized  stand, 
ardizing  authority  in  this  country  for  thermometers  and  that  each  manu- 
facturer had  his  own  scale  tied  up  in  one  or  more  long-cherished 
instruments,  the  breakage  of  which  was  a  real  calamity  for  him  and  his 
clients,  the  necessity  for  the  establishment  of  a  standards  bureau  is  self- 
evident. 

Besides  the  testing  of  thermometric  instruments,  and  thereby  furnish- 
ing all  manufacturers  with  a  single  scale,  uniform  everywhere,  the  Bureau, 
in  certain  cases,  loans  its  own  standards.  It  has  also  taken  a  very  active 
part  in  the  improvement  of  specifications  and  the  methods  and  materials  of 
manufacture  as  well  as  in  testing  methods.  The  resulting  improvements  in 
American  thermometer  manufacture  have  been  such  that  in  1906  Gehr. 
Wieber,  the  chief  of  the  thermometer  department  of  the  Reichsanstalt,' 


GEORGE    K:    BURGESS,    '96  67 

published  the  statement  that  the  German  thermometer  manufacturers  were 
complaining  more  and  more  of  the  loss  of  the  American  market. 

The  manufacturers  of  instruments  for  the  measurement  of  high  tem- 
peratures have  also  been  aided  greatly,  and  the  condition  in  this  field  may 
be  described  as  having  been  chaotic  before  the  benefits  of  uniformity  of 
calibration  could  be  realized.  Opportunity  is  also  given  for  trying  out  and 
developing  new  types  of  instrument,,  and  a  great  many  suggestions  have 
been  given  manufacturers  which  have  been  incorporated  in  their  instru- 
ments. The  standards  of  practically  every  pyrometer  and  thermometer 
manufacturer  in  the  country  have  been  tested  at  the  Bureau. 

The  past  ten  years  have  witnessed  great  strides  in  the  development  of 
the  manufacture  and  use  of  pyrometers.  Formerly  the  question  usually 
asked  by  an  engineer  responsible  for  the  control  of  some  process  involving 
change  of  product  or  output  with  varying  temperature,  was,  "  Do  I  need  a 
pyrometer,  and  is  there  a  reliable  one  ?  "  To-day  he  knows  he  needs  one,  and 
asks  which  is  the  best  for  his  purpose.  The  Bureau  carries  on  a  very  heavy 
correspondence  with  users  of  such  instruments,  endeavoring  to  furnish  them 
with  the  information  best  adapted  to  each  case,  although  no  pretense  is 
made  of  replying  to  the  often  asked  question,  Which  is  the  best  pyrometer  ? 

In  a  similar  way,  advice  has  been  furnished  to  universities  and  techni- 
cal schools  regarding  the  formation  of  courses  of  instruction  in  heat  meas- 
urements, the  installation  and  design  of  new  apparatus,  and  the  testing 
with  the  highest  possible  accuracy  of  instruments  to  be  used  by  them  in 
numerous  experimental  investigations. 

To  still  further  aid  in  the  dissemination  of  a  uniform  temperature 
scale,  preparations  are  being  made  for  the  distribution  of  samples  of  pure 
metals  and  salts  of  certified  melting  points,  thus  permitting  anyone  to 
check  his  own  thermometric  or  pyrometric  apparatus  in  place.  As  a  pre- 
liminary to  this,  a  careful  survey  of  the  reproducibility  of  the  thermal 
behavior  of  such  materials  from  several  sources  of  supply  has  been  made. 

Among  the  other  investigations  under  way  or  in  immediate  contem- 
plation that  have  a  bearing  on  the  control  of  thermal  operations,  may  be 
mentioned  studies  of  thermal  properties  of  steels  and  refractories,  including 
in  both  instances  the  purest  obtainable  materials  and  the  commercial  prod- 
ucts; the  properties  of  steam  with  respect  to  turbine  design;  the  melting 
points  of  the  elements  and  of  some  pure  salts  and  alloys ;  gas  thermometry ; 
the  temperatures  of  incandescent  lamps;  the  corrections  to  be  applied  to 
optical  and  radiation  pyrometers  when  sighting  on  steels,  bronzes,  clays  and 
so  forth,  and  the  comparison  of  the  laws  of  radiation  on  which  the  estima- 
tion of  the  highest  temperatures  is  based. 


68 


THERMAL  OPERATIONS  AND  BUREAU  OF  STANDARDS 


Some  of  these  experimental  problems  have  been  undertaken  at  the  sug- 
gestion of  one  or  more  interested  individuals  or  corporations  who  often  are 
in  a  position  to  furnish  materials  that  may  sometimes  be  difficult  to  obtain 
otherwise.  Indeed^  we  are  at  times  in  the  perhaps  happy  but  nevertheless 
embarrassing  position  of  being  offered  a  great  many  more  opportunities  of 
this  kind  than  we  can  embrace. 

Still  another  function  the  Bureau  has  occasionally  exercised,  and  one 
that  will  probably  develop,  is  to  act  as  referee  or  court  of  appeals  in  case  of 
disputes  involving  standards,  physical  properties  of  materials  and  the  like, 
and  for  the  interpretation  of  contracts  involving  testing  methods. 

The  testing  activity  of  the  Heat  Division  of  the  Bureau  for  the  past 
four  years  ending  June  30,  1910,  is  shown  in  the  following  table : 


1906-7 

1907-8 

1908-9 

1909-10 

Clinical  thermometers  

8444 

8395 

10955 

13082 

Various  thermometers  

577 

798 

1791 

1508 

Pyrometers 

46 

60 

31 

39 

Calorimetric  tests 

41 

58 

Oils;  Flash  and  viscosity  

42 

17 

159 

17 

Miscellaneous  

9 

99 

6 

45 

Several  of  these  miscellaneous  tests  were  of  the  nature  of  quite  elabo- 
rate investigations  and  most  of  the  pyrometers  were  manufacturers'  stand- 
ards. Nominal  fees  are  charged  for  all.  tests  except  for  the  United  States  or 
State  governments.  About  one-third  of  this  testing  is  for  the  United  States 
Government.  The  Bureau  makes  known  the  results  of  its  investigations  by 
means  of  its  Bulletin,  and  its  testing  methods  and  specifications  are 
described  in  Circulars  of  Information. 

With  the  ever-increasing  economic  competition  and  the  improvement 
of  scientific  methods  and  instruments  as  applied  to  the  arts  and  sciences, 
the  demand  for  higher  accuracy  of  calibration  is  also  constantly  growing. 
Where,  for  instance,  O.°01  C.  was  considered  an  ample  precision  a  short 
while  ago  in  combustion  calorimetry,  and  O.°001  C.  sufficed  yesterday,  the 
demand  is  now  for  a  certainty  of  O.°0001  C.  in  temperature  differences  at 
25°  C.  The  meeting  of  rigid  requirements  necessitates  oftentimes  the 
application  of  entirely  new  methods  and  instruments,  and  we  are  witnessing 
in  consequence  the  passing  of  some  familiar  types  such  as  the  mercury-in- 
glass  thermometer  from  the  list  of  instruments  of  precision. 

A  most  important  step  is  yet  to  be  taken  in  the  unifying  of  the  tem- 
perature scales  and  the  values  assigned  to  the  various  thermal  constants  in 


GEOEGE    K.    BUBGESS,    >96  69 

use  in  the  several  countries.  To-day,  a  pyrometer  manufactured  in  France, 
calibrated  in  England  and  used  in  the  United  States  comes  in  competition 
with  a  German-made  and  certified  instrument,  and  with  one  of  American 
make  and  certification.  They  will  each  give  a  different  temperature  for  a 
furnace  at  say  1500°  C.  We  have  the  example  of  the  unification"  of  the 
standards  of  weights  and  measures  as  well  as  those  of  electricity  and  pho- 
tometry, and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  ere  long  the  standards  of  heat  may  also 
be  rendered  universal. 


THE  DEBT  OF  THE  MANUFACTURES  TO  THE  CHEMIST. 

By  HERVEY  J.  SKINNER,  '99, 
Vice-President,  Arthur  D.  Little,  Inc.,  Boston. 

THE  enormous  progress  and  changes  which  have  taken  place  in  indus- 
try and  commerce  in  the  course  of  the  past  century  may  to  a  large  extent  be 
justly  attributed  to  the  work  of  chemists. 

Such  a  statement  will  undoubtedly  be  regarded  by  many  as  a  most 
extraordinary  one  and  open  to  question,  since  the  proper  relation  of  the 
chemist  to  industrial  welfare  is  not  generally  appreciated. 

But  manufacturing  deals  with  the  modification  of  material,  and  since 
all  material  is  subject  to  chemical  laws  and  its  properties  are  governed  by 
these  laws,  it  becomes  apparent  that  the  majority  of  the  manufacturer's 
problems  are  those  in  applied  chemistry. 

Unfortunately,  the  average  manufacturer,  especially  if  his  process  is  a 
mechanical  one,  regards  chemistry  as  something  which  has  to  do  with  drugs 
and  chemicals  and  has  no  direct  bearing  upon  his  own  problems.  That 
manufacturers  fail  to  appreciate  their  indebtedness  to  the  chemist  and  how 
he  can  improve  the  efficiency  of  their  processes  by  studying  the  chemical 
properties  of  their  materials  is  due  largely  to  the  fact  that  the  older  gener- 
ation of  manufacturers  started  as  factory  hands  and  have  worked  themselves 
up  through  the  various  grades  to  managerships  and  presidencies.  Their 
methods  have  been  rule-of -thumb  methods  and  science  has  had  no  meaning 
to  them.  Their  aim  was  to  make  money,  and  the  efficiency  of  their  processes 
was  a  secondary  consideration. 

"With  the  growth  resulting  from  the  combination  of  capital  and  the 
technically  trained  men  which  our  universities  are  turning  out,  conditions 
are  taking  on  a  new  aspect.  The  larger  manufacturers,  realizing  their  debt 
to  the  chemist  and  also  that  there  are  still  unsolved  problems  in  every  fac- 
tory, are  securing  the  benefits  of  scientific  advice.  The  smaller  manufac- 
turer will  soon  be  forced  to  the  same  procedure,  or  he  will  lose  in  the 
struggle  for  industrial  existence.  The  rule-of-thumb  method  is  passing. 
Guesswork  is  being  replaced  by  scientific  knowledge,  and  more  and  more 

70 


HERVEY  J.  SKINNER,    '99  71 

consideration  is  being  given  to  the  underlying  principles  of  the  manufac- 
turing processes. 

Manufacturing  operations  based  upon  chemical  processes  require  con- 
trol at  each  step  to  maintain  efficiency.  Those  based  upon  mechanic_al_proc- 
esses  but  still  dependent  upon  "material,"  demand  rigid  inspection  and 
control  of  every  material  entering  into  or  affecting  the  cost  of  the  finished 
product. 

All  this  is  the  work  of  the  chemist  or  the  testing  engineer.  It  should 
be  his  duty  to  see  that  every  material  is  purchased  on  a  basis  of  quality  and 
not  of  brand,  that  the  finished  product  meets  the  proper  requirements,  and 
that  the  yields  are  as  near  theoretical  as  possible. 

A  laboratory  is  just  as  essential  to  a  factory  as  is  an  office,  and  the 
chemist  is  just  as  necessary  as  the  auditor.  The  records  of  manufacturing 
concerns  using  scientific  knowledge  will  bear  out  this  statement.  One  mis- 
take common  to  both  the  manufacturer  and  the  chemist  themselves  should 
be  pointed  out.  Many  manufacturers,  having  been  converted  to  the  idea 
that  a  chemist  can  be  of  assistance  in  the  operation  of  their  plants,  often- 
times will  employ  a  recent  technical  graduate  and  expect  him  to  solve  any 
question  in  chemistry.  This  is  an  injustice  to  the  young  chemist  and  to  the 
profession  itself. 

Alan  A.  Claflin  in  a  recent  article  has  said : 

"  The  employment  of  a  scientific  man  does  not  mean  the  engaging  of  a 
recent  technical  graduate  at  a  salary  of  fifteen  to  twenty  dollars  a  week  to 
test  raw  materials  and  report  results,  which  are  probably  erroneous,  to  a 
foreman  who  does  not  understand  them,  but  it  means  having  a  man  of 
mature  experience  as  a  chemical  adviser  with  two  or  three  recent  graduates 
as  working  assistants." 

No  words  could  be  truer  or  better  expressed.  The  manufacturer  does 
not  hire  a  bookkeeper  without  actual  experience  to  keep  his  accounts, 
neither  does  he  engage  a  lawyer  just  out  of  a  law  school  to  look  after  his 
legal  affairs.  Then  why  should  he  expect  the  young  graduate  with  a  large 
amount  of  theoretical  knowledge  and  with  limited  experience  to  be  able 
to  solve  effectively  the  problems  which  have  been  troubling  him  for  years  ? 

This  condition  of  affairs  is  really  a  serious  one  and  has  much  to  do 
with  the  attitude  which  the  average  manufacturer  takes  toward  the  chemist. 
It  also  accounts  for  the  diffidence  of  the  manufacturer  in  applying  chemical 
science  to  his  problems,  and  not  until  the  true  relation  between  the  chemist 
and  material  is  more  fully  realized  will  the  real  debt  of  the  manufacturer 
to  the  chemist  become  appreciated. 


THE  PREVENTION  AND  CONTROL  OF  FIRES  THROUGH 
SCIENTIFIC  METHODS. 

By  EDWARD  V.  FRENCH,  '89, 

Vice-President  and   Engineer,   Arkwright   Mutual   Fire   Insurance   Co., 

Boston,  Mass. 

IN  recent  years  much  has  been  said  and  written  in  this  country  regard- 
ing the  conservation  of  resources,  and  there  is  general  unanimity  of  opinion 
that  conservation  is  vital  to  the  future  welfare  of  the  nation.  In  the 
United  States,  property  to  the  value  of  $250,000,000  is,  on  the  average, 
annually  consumed  by  fires.  This  is  absolute  waste.  Nothing  is  produced. 
If  we  cut  our  woodlands  for  lumber  and  paper  we  at  least  have  something 
as  a  product,  but  the  heap  of  ruins  left  by  a  conflagration  is  waste  of  the 
most  extravagant  and  useless  sort. 

About  seventy-five  years  ago  Zachariah  Allen,  a  cotton  manufacturer 
of  Rhode  Island,  conceived  the  idea  of  materially  reducing  fire  costs,  and 
interested  a  number  of  other  manufacturers  in  a  plan  for  mutually  sharing 
losses.  Self-interest  encouraged  care  and  secured  the  intelligent  coopera- 
tion of  all  who  joined  in  the  plan.  Attention  was  early  given  to  causes  of 
fires  and  to  means  of  preventing  them,  and  this  was  the  starting  point  of 
what  now  has  become  the  important  specialty  of  fire  protection  engineering. 

The  advantage  of  good  construction  was  apparent  from  the  beginning, 
and  some  mills  in  New  England,  though  built  over  seventy-five  years  ago, 
still  stand  with  floors  of  heavy  plank  and  timber,  and  with  stairways  and 
elevators  in  brick  towers.  This  type  of  construction  early  became  known 
as  slow  burning,  from  the  fact  that  the  solid  masses  of  wood  in  the  timbers 
and  plank  resisted  fire  for  a  long  time  before  being  sufficiently  burned  to  be 
seriously  weakened.  Contrasted  with  this  construction  is  the  ordinary  type, 
using  joists  and  thin  floors,  in  which  the  surface  exposed  to  the  fire  is  much 
greater  than  when  plank  and  timber  are  used,  and  in  which  the  wood  is  in 
such  small  pieces  that  a  little  fire  quickly  destroys  all  strength,  thus  result- 
ing in  a  quick-burning  structure. 

The  need  of  having  floors  tight  so  that  no  vertical  openings  would  exist 
through  which  fire  could  quickly  pass  from  story  to  story  was  early  recog- 
nized. It  later  became  the  practice  to  enclose  the  main  driving  belts  in 

72 


EDWAKD    V.    FKENCH,    '89  73 

brick  towers  and  in  practically  all  of  the  older  mills  where  the  belts  were 
originally  carried  from  water  wheels  or  engines  through  the  floors,  making 
considerable  openings,  incombustible  partitions  have  been  built  around  the 
belts  so  as  to  eliminate  this  danger. 

One  of  the  first  improvements  upon  the  primitive  protection  afforded 
by  standpipe  and  fire  pail  came  about  1850  in  the  development  of  perforated 
pipe  sprinklers.  These  consisted  of  lines  of  pipe,  one  carried  through  each 
mill  bay,  drilled  with  small  holes,  designed  to  throw  water  against  the 
ceiling. 

As  mills  became  larger  and  concentrated  values  greater,  better  protec- 
tion was  needed.  Ingenious  minds  had  been  working  on  the  problem  and 
in  about  1875  the  first  automatic  sprinkler  was  developed  in  shape  suitable 
for  general  use.  This  device  has  revolutionized  the  whole  science  of  fire 
protection  and  is  the  main  instrument  which  has  made  it  possible  to  control 
the  fire  hazard  within  the  limits  which  are  now  possible. 

In  the  automatic  sprinkler  there  is  an  orifice  of  about  %  inch  diameter 
normally  closed  by  a  valve,  which  is  held  to  its  seat  by  an  arrangement  of 
levers,  links  or  struts  which  are  held  together  by  fusible  solder,  the  ordinary 
type  melting  at  a  temperature  of  about  160°  F.  These  sprinklers  are  placed 
over  the  ceilings  of  rooms  to  be  protected,  with  a  head  for  about  every  80 
or  100  sq.  ft.  of  area,  and  water  is  supplied  to  them  by  pipes  arranged 
much  as  in  the  old  perforated  pipe  systems.  On  the  occurrence  of  fire  the 
temperature  near  the  ceiling  rises,  one  or  more  sprinklers  open  and  deluge 
that  particular  section  where  the  fire  is. 

The  problem  of  devising  and  constructing  automatic  sprinklers  has 
required  much  careful  scientific  work.  The  conditions  are  difficult.  The 
device  must  be  simple  and  rugged,  but  such  that  it  can  remain  in  repose 
for  years  and  then  respond  within  30  to  50  seconds  where  the  temperature 
around  them  rises  to  the  melting  point  of  the  solder,  and  yet  withstand  the 
ordinary  tendencies  to  corrosion  and  the  usual  atmospheric  changes.  To 
accomplish  this  has  proved  no  simple  task,  and  many  hundreds  of  patterns 
have  been  offered,  though  there  are  to-day  but  six  to  ten  heads  which  are 
commonly  used. 

The  first  idea  was  that  but  a  few  sprinklers  would  ever  be  called  upon 
at  a  time,  and  that  if  these  did  not  control  a  fire  other  means  must  be  used. 
Experience,  however,  soon  showed  that  sprinklers  could  do  a  larger  work, 
and  that  if  supplied  with  ample  water  they  could  protect  very  large  areas. 
In  cases  where  buildings  equipped  with  sprinklers  were  attacked  by  severe 
fires  on  the  outside,  flames  were  driven  back  by  the  water  from  the  sprink- 
lers and  the  protected  building  was  saved  with  practically  no  damage  other 


SOSSOT 


EDWAED    V.    FEENCH,    '89  75 

than  that  from  water.  This  at  once  showed  the  need  of  providing  pipe 
sizes  which  would  be  ample  to  bring  water  to  all  the  sprinklers,  which  might 
open  in  any  case.  To  determine  this  wisely  very  elaborate  tests  were  made 
in  which  the  friction  loss  in  pipes  of  different  sizes  used  in  sprinkler  work 
was  determined,  as  well  as  the  friction  loss  in  various  types  of  fittings. 

From  the  first  there  were  careful  inspections  of  the  factory  properties, 
associated  in  this  plan  of  fire  study  and  loss  sharing  on  a  mutual  basis. 
These  brought  to  each  owner  the  experience  obtained  over  the  whole  field. 
The  apparatus  provided  was  tested  and,  in  the  absence  of  any  more  exact 
method,  it  was  a  common  practice  in  testing  a  fire  pump  to  throw  streams 
over  the  mill  tower,  getting  a  rough  estimate  of  the  capacity  and  condition 
of  the  pump.  As  more  equipment  was  provided,  better  methods  of  testing 
became  necessary.  It  was  found  that  the  ordinary  tables  for  the  discharge 
of  water  through  nozzles  were  in  error  and  comprehensive  tests  were 
arranged  under  conditions  where  nozzles  of  different  types  could  be  com- 
pared, the  height  of  streams  noted,  and  the  limits  for  varying  pressures  and 
different  sizes  of  nozzles  determined.  At  the  same  time  the  possibility  of 
using  better-made  nozzles  for  measuring  water  was  demonstrated.  These 
tests,  carried  on  mainly  by  Technology  men,  resulted  in  the  standard  fire 
stream  tables  now  universally  used,  and  this  work  made  a  definite  and  valu- 
able contribution  to  general  hydraulic  knowledge. 

In  these  tests  the  friction  loss  in  hose  of  different  kinds  was  measured 
and  it  was  found  that  the  smoothness  of  the  rubber  lining  exerted  a  very 
great  influence  on  the  friction.  With  the  ordinary  fire  stream,  which  was 
standardized  as  a  flow  of  250  gallons  per  minute,  a  smooth  rubber  lining 
caused  a  loss  of  about  14  Ibs.  per  100  ft.  of  length  of  hose.  Other 
rubber  linings,  commonly  used,  caused  a  loss  of  over  25  Ibs.  per  100  ft.  of 
length  of  hose.  Thus  the  desirability  of  smooth  linings  was  brought  to  the 
attention  of  hose  manufacturers,  improvements  were  readily  made,  and  the 
whole  efficiency  of  fire  hose  was  very  greatly  increased.  The  standard  tables 
made  up  from  these  data  were  put  in  such  form  that  with  the  pressure  at 
the  hydrant,  the  length  of  hose  and  the  size  of  nozzle  known,  the  amount 
of  water  discharged  was  given  within  the  limits  of  a  small  percentage. 
This  gave  a  convenient  and  accurate  means  of  testing  water-works  systems 
and  fire  pumps,  and  marked  a  distinct  advance  in  the  whole  science  of  water 
measurement  for  such  conditions. 

As  steam  fire  pumps  became  common  tests  by  inspectors  showed  many 
failures.  Parts  would  break;  pumps  would  be  found  rusted  so  that  they 
could  not  be  moved;  steam  ports  and  water  passages  were  so  small  that  the 
pumps  frequently  could  not  be  driven  under  fire  pressure  to  at  all  their 


76  THE    PEEVENTION    AND    CONTROL    OF    FIRES 

rated  capacity.  The  problem  was  studied  and  with  the  cooperation  of 
pump  makers  a  special  fire  pump  was  developed,  more  rugged  in  design,  all 
moving  parts  rust  proofed,  and  with  water  arid  steam  pipes  ample.  The 
result  was  a  thoroughly  reliable  fire-fighting  machine  of  large  capacity. 
This  is  now  the  type  of  pump  universally  used  in  fire  protection  work,  and 
known  as  the  "  Underwriter." 

It  is  of  the  most  vital  importance  that  the  good  construction  provided 
at  the  start  and  the  strong  protective  equipment  installed  should  be  main- 
tained at  all  times  in  the  best  condition.  The  inspection  service  which 
began  in  a  small  way  has  been  extended  with  the  growth  of  the  protected 
plants  until  now  every  factory  is  regularly  visited  four  times  each  year,  and 
a  large  part  of  the  men  engaged  in  this  work  have  had  technical  education, 
or  good  practical  experience  giving  a  parallel  knowledge  and  an  acquaint- 
ance with  the  technical  problems  constantly  arising  in  our  modern  manu- 
facturing plants.  Careful  reports  are  made  on  each  plant  as  it  is  inspected, 
so  that  conditions  throughout  the  whole  field  may  be  watched  and  the  owner 
of  each  factory  gets  an  estimate  of  the  condition  of  his  plant  by  different 
men  looking  from  different  viewpoints  and  bringing  to  him  the  experience 
from  a  very  wide  field. 

The  above  points,  but  briefly  touched  upon,  are  simply  the  main 
features  in  a  broad  development  which  has  made  the  modern  protected  fac- 
tory, with  its  many  hazards,  one  of  the  safest  fire  risks  known.  The  sum- 
mation of  these  various  lines  of  activity  have  made  a  system  and  created 
the  specialty  of  fire  protection  engineering. 

A  few  examples  of  typical  cases  may  be  of  interest.  In  the  great  fire 
which  destroyed  a  considerable  section  of  Paterson,  N.  J.,  about  ten  years 
ago,  the  conflagration  was  for  hours  beyond  control  of  the  combined  fire 
departments.  The  fire  finally  extended  to  a  group  of  protected  mills.  The 
fire  pumps  in  these  mills  were  early  put  in  operation  and  the  mill  fire  bri- 
gade stood  ready.  As  the  conflagration  approached  the  mills  it  was  met, 
driven  back  and  stopped.  A  map  of  the  city  with  the  burned  area  indicated 
in  black  shows  its  ragged  border  line  drawn  parallel  with,  and  but  a  short 
distance  from,  these  mills.  The  scientific  methods  of  fire  fighting  which 
had  been  developed  had  triumphed  and  these  protected  properties  sustained 
practically  no  damage,  and  actually  checked  the  conflagration  in  this 
direction. 

The  underlying  principle  in  all  of  this  work,  be  it  an  intricate  problem 
or  a  very  simple  one,  has  been  to  intelligently  and  carefully  ascertain  all  of 
the  facts,  using  the  best  scientific  knowledge  available,  and  then  with  the 
conditions  fully  known  devise  changes  in  methods  or  provide  precautionary 


EDWAED    V.    FEENCH,     '89  77 

features  to  take  care  of  the  difficulties,  and  do  this  without  throwing  serious 
obstruction  in  the  way  of  economical  and  rapid  production.  It  is  a  work  in 
which  the  knowledge  and  skill  of  the  scientific  man  must  be  combined  with 
good  judgment  and  an  appreciation  of  everyday  business  conditions,  and 
there  must  be  constant  willingness  to  cooperate  to  the  full  extent  with  the 
practical  manufacturer.  When  the  work  is  conducted  in  this  way  the  gain 
to  the  manufacturer  in  the  prevention  of  fires,  the  quick  controlling  of  such 
fires  as  occur,  and  the  safeguarding  of  his  business  from  troublesome  and 

COST  PER  YEAR  FOR  FIRES  AND  FIRE  PROTECTION  WORK. 
1860  1870  1£80  1880  1900  1910 


w 

1 

w 

"* 

33.7  Cts  . 

0(\ 

I 

30.0  Cts. 

. 

r 

21.6  Cts. 

~u 

15.4  Cts. 

2>10 

10 

8 

6.9  Cts. 

o  n 

o 

THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  SPRINKLER  PROTECTION 

1860-1875            1875                             1875-1895                                           1895-1910 

Perforated  Pipe        First       Automatic  Sprinklers  replacing  Perforated        Automatic  Sprinkler 

Sprinklers  turned    Auto.       Pipe  Sprinklers  and  being  extended  to  all          protection  rapidly  neariug 

on  by  hand  in          Spriuk-    parts  of  Factories  and  into  Storehouses  as         100%  for  factories  and 

most  Cotton             lers.         experience  showed  their  Value                            Storehouses 

Picker  Booms 

&  some  other 

Depts. 

FIG.  2 


perhaps  fatal  interruption  by  a  severe  fire  is  certainly  of  the  very  greatest 
benefit. 

An  excellent  example  of  the  spirit  of  thoroughness  was  recently  shown 
in  the  investigation  of  a  fire  which  destroyed  a  large  city  block  and  threat- 
ened two  protected  plants  which  were  adjacent.  The  exposure  fire  was  of 
unexpected  severity.  The  nearest  protected  factory  was  directly  in  the 
path  of  attack  and  its  destruction  seemed  inevitable.  The  wooden  frames 
and  sashes  on  the  exposed  sides  were  burned  out;  the  automatic  sprinklers 
on  each  floor  opposite  the  windows  opened;  the  fire  brigade  manned  the 
standpipe  in  a  brick  tower;  a  fire  pump,  of  the  type  already  described,  fur- 
nished an  ample  water  supply  at  good  pressure,  and  though  the  men  were 
almost  forced  again  and  again  to  flee  from  the  tower,  they  stood  their 


78  THE    PREVENTION    AND    CONTROL    OF    FIRES 

ground  and  the  sprinklers,  aided  by  the  standpipe  streams,  kept  the  fire 
entirely  out  of  the  building,  which  without  such  equipment  would  surely 
have  been  quickly  destroyed.  The  loss  was  moderate  and  confined  almost 
entirely  to  the  unavoidable  wetting  down. 

An  adjacent  building  was  similarly  protected  and  all  of  the  windows 
toward  the  fire  were  of  wired  glass  in  metal  frames.  Here  also  the  private 
fire  brigade  did  good  service,  helping  out  with  hose  streams  any  especially 
hard-pressed  point.  When  the  fire  was  over  many  who  examined  the  pro- 
tected buildings  gave  credit  to  the  wired  glass  and  were  inclined  to  attrib- 
ute the  saving  of  the  large  building  almost  entirely  to  it.  Then  a  careful 
investigator,  with  a  desire  to  get  at  the  exact  truth,  carefully  studying  the 
conditions,  found  that  high  wooden  poles  carrying  electric  wires,  running 
up  beside  the  building,  protected  with  the  wired  glass,  were  not  charred. 
This  evidence  was  at  once  conclusive  that  the  severity  of  attack  on  the 
building  with  wired  glass  was  much  less  than  that  on  the  other  building,  and 
that  any  attempt  to  draw  from  this  incident  a  positive  conclusion  as  to  the 
resisting  ability  of  such  protected  windows  was  erroneous. 

It  was  undoubtedly  true  that  windows  of  this  kind  did  not  break  out 
or  crack  as  ordinary  glass  would  probably  have  done,  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent.  The  point,  however,  is  that  in  all  this  work  the  real  facts  must  be 
absolutely  ascertained  if  true  conclusions  are  to  be  drawn,  and  this  instance 
shows  the  work  which  the  trained  observer,  taking  time  to  study  every  con- 
dition and  imbued  with  the  spirit  of  thoroughness,  can  do.  It  shows  further 
the  need  of  such  observers  if  the  real  facts  are  to  be  certainly  determined 
and  the  true  conclusions  drawn. 

A  diagram  of  the  fires  which  have  occurred  in  the  association  of  fac- 
tories which  have  carried  on  this  study  of  protection  against  fires,  where 
the  loss  has  been  over  $100,000,  shows  that  such  fires  came  along  with  con- 
siderable frequency  in  the  early  days,  but  that  later,  when  automatic  sprink- 
lers were  largely  in  use  and  other  means  of  prevention  and  protection 
developed  to  a  high  state  of  efficiency,  there  was  a  marked  lessening  in  the 
number  of  severe  fires.  This  plotting,  together  with  figures  showing  the 
growth  in  value  of  the  factories  thus  cooperating,  makes  a  graphic  object 
lesson  of  the  results  accomplished  by  the  application  of  scientific  methods. 

In  another  way  the  cost  of  fires,  including  the  cost  of  carrying  on  this 
system  of  studying  them  and  maintaining  methods  of  protection,  is  shown, 
covering  a  period  of  fifty  years  by  ten-year  averages.  This,  though  not 
made  up  from  the  whole  field,  is  typical  and  fairly  represents  the  result  from 
all  the  factories  cooperating  in  this  study.  This  shows  the  constant  reduc- 
tion in  cost,  with  the  improvement  in  methods  of  handling  the  fire  hazard. 


EDWAKD    V.    FBENCH,    '83  79 

It  should  be  remembered  that  this  has  been  accomplished  despite  the  enor- 
mous increase  in  size  of  properties  and  the  introduction  of  many  new 
hazards.  i  -^ 

In  more  recent  years  the  ideas  and  possibilities  developed  in  this  special 
field  of  manufacturing  plants  have  spread  and  have  been  applied  with 
increasing  advantage  in  the  general  field,  including  all  sorts  of  properties 
throughout  the  whole  country.  National  organizations  for  considering 
these  problems  are  now  in  flourishing  condition  and  doing  a  broad  and  use- 
ful work.  These  results  have  been  accomplished  through  the  work  of  many 
earnest  men.  As  is  always  the  case,  few  have  led  and  directed  the  main 
movements,  but  much  has  been  contributed  by  the  painstaking  investigation 
of  many  different  workers.  All  of  the  men  who  have  done  this  work  have 
possessed  the  scientific  spirit,  and  many  of  them  are  alumni  of  Technology. 

The  terrible  loss  of  life  which  recently  occurred  in  New  York  City  and 
the  loss  of  a  life  and  irreplacable  papers  in  the  State  Capitol  at  Albany 
could  have  been  prevented  by  methods  long  since  adopted  in  hundreds  of 
manufacturing  plants.  But  slowly  does  the  scientific  spirit  penetrate  the 
broader  field,  where  so  many  diverse  interests  are  factors.  With  gain  in  the 
general  breadth  of  view  it  is  certain  that  these  methods  and  this  spirit  will 
in  the  coming  years  be  more  fully  recognized  and  will  exert  their  beneficial 
influence  throughout  the  whole  country. 


RESEARCH  AS  A  FINANCIAL  ASSET. 

By  WILLIS  R.  WHITNEY,  '90, 
Director,  Research  Laboratory,  General  Electric  Co.,  Schenectady,  N.  Y. 

IT  is  only  in  our  century  that  there  could  be  much  significance  to  such 
a  title  as  "  Research  as  a  Financial  Asset."  This  is  an  industrial  century, 
and,  whether  we  are  proud  of  it  or  not,  we  are  an  industrial  people.  For 
some  reasons  it  may  be  thought  unfortunate  that  so  large  a  proportion  of 
man's  energies  should  be  devoted  solely  to  the  industries.  In  some  eras  we 
find  that  there  was  a  predominance  of  art  over  industry ;  in  o'thers,  literature 
was  predominant;  in  still  others,  war  and  conquest.  Once  territorial  dis- 
covery and  acquisition  predominated,  and  now,  in  our  own  times,  the  prin- 
ciples of  community  interest  have  so  greatly  developed  that  we  are  accus- 
tomed to  seeing  many  people  who,  instead  of  directly  producing  their  own 
necessities  of  life,  are  more  generally  repeatedly  producing  some  one  little 
article  which  contributes  to  the  lives  of  others.  This  we  recognize  as  a  nat- 
ural tendency  to  higher  efficiency.  Our  intricate  and  delicately  balanced 
system  of  work  is  becoming  continually  more  complex,  but  is  certainly  still 
covered  by  the  elemental  laws  of  demand  and  of  survival.  New  discoveries 
in  our  day  are  largely  mental,  instead  of  geographical,  and  the  old  battles 
of  conquest  have  become  wars  with  ignorance.  They  are  struggles  to  over- 
come inefficiencies,  attempts  to  broaden  the  common  mental  horizon,  as  our 
ancestors  broadened  their  physical  horizon.  Very  few  people  realize  the 
rapidity  with  which  technical  advances  are  being  made.  Few  realize  how 
the  way  of  this  advance  has  itself  advanced.  I  might  make  this  more  clear 
by  an  illustration. 

Consider  for  a  moment  the  increasing  uses  of  chemical  elements  and 
compounds.  New  combinations  in  alloys,  medicines,  dyes,  foods,  etc.,  etc., 
and  new  uses  and  new  materials  are  being  produced  daily.  For  a  more 
simple  comparison,  consider  only  the  advances  in  our  technical  uses  of  the 
metallic  chemical  elements. 

Copper,  iron  and  five  other  metals  were  known  and  used  at  the  time  of 
Christ.  In  the  first  1800  or  1900  years  of  our  era,  there  were  added  to  the 
list  of  metals  in  technical  use  (pure  or  alloyed)  about  eight  more,  or  a  rate 
below  three  a  century.  There  has  been  so  much  industrial  advance  made 

80 


WILLIS  E.  WHITNEY,   790  81 

within  the  past  twenty  to  thirty  years  that  fourteen  new  metals  have  been 
brought  into  commericial  use  within  this  period.  This  is  almost  as  many 
in  our  quarter  century  as  in  the  total  preceding  age  of  the  world.  Of 
course  this  rate,  as  applied  to  metals,  apparently  cannot  continue,  but  there 
is  no  reason  to  question  the  possibility  of  the  general  advance  it  indi- 
cates. For  centuries  a  single  metal  was  made  to  serve  for  all  uses  which 
that  metal  could  fill.  Then  two  metals  divided  the  field,  each  being  used 
where  it  was  preferred  for  any  reason.  Alloys  began  to  displace  metals  to  a 
limited  extent.  While  the  engineer  still  uses  iron  for  his  railroad,  iron  for 
his  buildings  and  iron  for  his  tools,  these  irons  are  different  and  have  been 
specially  developed  for  those  uses.  The  electrical  engineer  prefers  copper 
for  his  conductor,  certain  irons  for  the  frames  of  apparatus,  other  special 
irons  and  steels  for  the  shafts,  the  magnetic  fields,  etc.,  etc.,  and  the  special- 
ization to  best  meet  specific  wants  is  still  under  way.  I  suppose  that  this 
kind  of  complex  development  is  largely  responsible  for  research  laboratories. 

A  research  laboratory  is  a  place  where  men  are  especially  occupied  with 
new  problems,  presumably  not  too  far  in  advance  of  technical  application. 
By  this  group  devoting  its  entire  attention  to  the  difficulties  of  realizing 
and  abating  already  well-defined  necessities,  or  of  newly  defining  and 
abating  together,  the  efficiency  of  these  processes  is  increased.  Men  specially 
trained  for  this  very  purpose  are  employed  and  they  are  usually  just  as 
unfitted  for  successfully  manufacturing  as  those  who  efficiently  reproduce 
are  of  discovering  or  inventing.  It  is  merely  an  extension  of  the  principle  of 
the  maximum  efficiency.  A  man  with  his  entire  attention  devoted  for 
months  or  years  at  a  time  to  the  difficulties  of  a  single  problem  should  be 
better  able  to  reach  a  solution  than  the  man  who  can  devote  only  irregular 
intervals  to  it.  He  should  then  also  be  better  prepared  for  a  second  problem. 

A  reasearch  laboratory  is  also  a  place  equipped  with  apparatus  especi- 
ally designed  for  experimental  work.  In  a  busy  manufacturing  plant,  if 
a  foreman  has  an  idea  pointing  toward  an  improvement  of  his  product  he 
frequently  has  great  difficulty  in  finding  the  time,  the  necessary  idle  appa- 
ratus, the  raw  materials  and  the  incentive  to  try  it.  In  the  laboratory  all  of 
these  are  combined,  and  there  is  added  a  system  of  cooperation,  of  per- 
manently recording  results  and  an  atmosphere  of  research. 

The  mathematics  of  cooperation  of  men  and  tools  is  interesting  in  this 
connection.  Separated  men  trying  their  individual  experiments  contribute 
in  proportion  to  their  numbers,  and  their  work  may  be  called  mathematic- 
ally additive.  The  effect  of  a  single  piece  of  apparatus  given  to  one  man 
is  also  additive  only,  but  when  a  group  of  men  are  cooperating,  as  distinct 
from  merely  operating,  their  work  rises  with  some  higher  power  of  the  num- 


82  RESEARCH    AS    A   FINANCIAL    ASSET 

her  than  the  first  power.  It  approaches  the  square  for  two  men  and  the 
cube  for  three.  Two  men  cooperating  with  two  different  and  special  pieces 
of  apparatus,  say  a  special  furnace  and  a  pyrometer,  or  an  hydraulic  press 
and  new  chemical  substances,  are  more  powerful  than  their  arithmetical 
sum.  These  facts  doubtless  assist  as  assets  of  a  research  laboratory. 

When  a  central  organization,  such  as  a  laboratory,  has  access  to  all 
parts  of  a  large  manufacturing  plant  and  is  forced  sooner  or  later  to  come 
into  contact  with  the  various  processes  and  problems,  the  various  possibili- 
ties and  appliances,  it  can  hardly  fail  to  apply,  in  some  degree,  the  above 
law  of  powers. 

As  a  possible  means  of  illustrating  the  almost  certain  assistance  which 
one  part  of  a  manufacturing  plant  may  give  another  when  they  are  con- 
nected by  experimenting  departments  or  research  laboratories,  and  how  one 
thread  of  work  starts  another,  I  will  briefly  review  part  of  a  single  fairly 
connected  line  of  work  in  our  laboratory.  In  1901  the  Meter  Department 
wanted  electrically  conducting  rods  of  a  million  ohms'  resistance.  These 
were  to  be  *4  in.  diameter  by  1  in.  length.  In  connection  with  this 
work  we  had  to  become  fairly  familiar  with  published  attempts  at 
making  any  type  of  such  high  resistances.  Some  kind  of  porcelain  body 
containing  a  very  little  conducting  material  seemed  a  fair  starting  formula 
after  the  resistance  of  almost  all  kinds  of  materials  had  been  considered. 
Our  own  porcelain  department  was  a  great  help  in  showing  us  how  to  get 
a  good  start.  We  learned  how  and  what  to  mix  to  get  a  fair  porcelain,  and 
we  found  that  small  quantities  of  carborundum  or  of  graphite  would  give 
us  the  desired  resistance  about  once  in  a  hundred  trials.  The  rods  could  be 
made,  but  the  variation  of  their  resistance  when  taken  from  the  porcelain 
kiln  and  when  they  were  made  as  nearly  alike  as  we  could  make  them,  was 
often  so  many  thousand  fold  that  something  new  had  to  be  done  to  make 
a  practical  success.  A  small  electric  furnace  was  then  devised  for  baking 
the  rods,  and  this  was  so  arranged  that  the  rate  of  rise  of  temperature,  the 
maximum  temperature  reached  and  the  duration  of  heat  at  any  tempera- 
ture was  under  control  and  was  also  recorded.  The  desired  result  was 
obtained  and  this  work  was  thus  finished.  It  gave  us  a  certain  stock  of 
knowledge  and  assurance. 

At  that  time  a  very  similar  problem  was  bothering  one  of  the  engi- 
neering departments.  Lightning  arrester  rods,  part  of  the  apparatus  for 
protecting  power  lines  from  lightning,  were  needed.  Their  dimensions 
were  %x6  ins.,  and  they  needed  to  have  a  definite  but,  in  this  case,  low  resist- 
ance, and  could  apparently  not  be  baked  in  a  porcelain  kiln.  The  neces- 
sary variations  of  temperature  in  such  a  kiln  are  so  great  that  in  practice 


WILLIS  B.  WHITNEY,   '90  Si* 

many  thousand  rods  were  repeatedly  fired  and  afterward  tested  to  yield  a 
few  hundred  of  satisfactory  product.  All  the  cost  of  making  an  entire  batch 
would  have  to  be  charged  against  the  few  units  which  might  be  found  satis- 
factory, and  in  many  cases  there  were  none  good  in  a  thousand  tested.  It 
was  evident  that  regulation  and  control  of  temperature  was  necessary.  This 
was  found  to  be  impracticable  in  case  any  considerable  number  were  to  be 
fired  at  one  time,  as  the  heated  mass  was  so  great  that  the  rods  near  the  walls 
of  the  retort  received  a  very  different  heat-treatment  from  those  near  the 
middle  and  were  consequently  electrically  different.  This  was  still  the  case 
even  when  electrically  heated  muffles  were  used.  This  difficulty  led  to  experi- 
ments along  the  line  of  a  heated  pipe,  through  which  the  rods  could  be 
automatically  passed.  Some  time  was  spent  in  trying  to  make  a  practical 
furnace  out  of  a  length  of  ordinary  iron  pipe,  which  was  so  arranged  as  to 
carry  enough  electric  current  to  be  heated  to  the  proper  baking  temperature. 
Troubles  here  with  oxidation  of  the  iron  finally  led  to  substitution  of  carbon 
pipes.  This  resulted  in  a  carbon  tube  furnace,  which  is  merely  a  collection 
of  6-ft.  carbon  pipes,  embedded  in  coke  powder  to  prevent  combustion, 
and  held  at  the  ends  in  water-cooled  copper  clamps,  which  introduce  the 
electric  current.  By  control  of  this  current  the  temperature  could  be  kept 
constant  at  any  point  desired.  When  this  was  combined  with  a  constant 
rate  of  mechanical  feed  of  the  air-dried  rods  of  porcelain  mixture,  a  good 
product  was  obtained.  For  the  past  seven  years  this  furnace  has  turned  out 
all  the  arrester  rods,  the  number  produced  the  last  year  being  over  100,000 
units.  In  this  work  we  were  also  forced  to  get  into  close  touch  with  the 
electroplating  department.  The  rods  had  to  be  copper-plated  at  the  ends,  to 
insure  good  electrical  contact.  The  simple  plating  was  not  enough.  This 
introduced  other  problems,  which  I  will  pass  over,  as  I  wish  to  follow  the 
line  of  continuous  experiment  brought  about,  in  part,  at  least,  by  a  single 
investigation. 

The  electric  furnace  consisting  of  the  carbon  tube  packed  in  coke 
was  a  good  tool  for  other  work,  and  among  other  things  we  heated  the 
carbon  filaments  for  incandescent  lamps  in  it.  We  were  actuated  by  a 
theory  that  the  high  temperature  thus  obtainable  would  benefit  the  filament 
by  removal  of  ash  ingredients,  which  we  knew  the  ordinary  firing  methods 
left  there.  While  these  were  removed,  the  results  did  not  prove  the  correct- 
ness of  the  theory,  but  rather  the  usefulness  of  trying  experiments.  It  was 
found  by  experiment  that  the  graphite  coat  on  the  ordinary  lamp  filament 
was  so  completely  changed  as  to  permit  of  a  100  per  cent  increase  in 
the  lamp  life  or  of  a  20  per  cent  increase  in  the  efficiency  of  the  lamp 
for  the  same  life,  so  that  for  the  past  four  or  five  years  a  large  part  of  the 


84  EESEABCH    AS    A   FINANCIAL    ASSET 

carbon  lamps  made  in  this  country  have  been  of  this  improved  type.  This 
is  the  metallized  or  Gem  lamp.  Naturally,  this  work  started  a  great  deal 
of  other  work  along  the  lines  of  incandescent  lamp  improvement.  At  no 
time  has  such  work  been  stopped,  but,  in  addition  to  it,  the  new  lines  of 
metallic  filament  lamps  were  taken  up.  In  fact,  during  the  past  five  or 
six  years,  a  very  large  proportion  of  our  entire  work  has  been  done  along 
the  line  of  metallic  tungsten  incandescent  lamps.  In  this  way  we  have  been 
able  to  keep  in  the  van  of  this  line  of  manufacture.  The  carbon  tube  fur- 
nace has  been  elaborated  for  other  purposes,  so  as  to  cover  the  action  under 
high  pressures  and  in  vacuo.  Particularly  in  the  latter  case  a  great  deal 
of  experimental  work  has  been  carried  out,  contributing  to  work  such  as 
that  connected  with  rare  metals.  In  such  a  furnace,  materials  which  would 
react  with  gases  have  been  studied  to  advantage.  Our  experience  with  the 
metallized  graphite  led  to  production  of  a  special  carbon  for  contact  sur- 
faces in  railway  signal  devices,  where  ordinary  carbon  was  inferior,  and 
suggested  the  possibility  of  our  contributing  to  improvements  in  carbon 
motor  generator  brushes.  On  the  basis  of  our  previous  experience  and  by 
using  the  usual  factory  methods,  we  became  acquainted  with  the  difficulties 
in  producing  carbon  and  graphite  motor  brushes  with  the  reliability  and 
regularity  demanded  by  the  motor  art.  Furnace  firing  was  a  prime  diffi- 
culty. Here  again  we  resorted  to  special  electrically  heated  muffles,  where 
the  temperatures,  even  below  redness,  could  be  carefully  controlled  and  auto- 
matically recorded.  This  care,  aided  by  much  experimentation  along  the 
line  of  composition,  of  proportionality  between  the  several  kinds  of  carbon 
in  the  brush,  etc.,  put  us  into  shape  to  make  really  superior  brushes.  The 
company  has  now  been  manufacturing  these  for  a  couple  of  years,  with 
especial  reference  to  particularly  severe  requirements,  such  as  railway 
motors.  In  such  cases  the  question  of  selling  price  is  so  secondary  that  we 
can  and  do  charge  liberally  for  delicacy  and  care  of  operation  in  the 
manufacture. 

This  carbon  work  naturally  led  to  other  applications  of  the  identical 
processes  or  materials.  Circuit  breakers,  for  example,  are  now  equipped 
with  a  specially  hard  carbon  contact,  made  somewhat  as  motor  brushes  are 
made. 

It  is  not  my  intention  to  connect  all  of  the  laboratory  work  to  the 
thread  which  seemed  to  connect  these  particular  pieces  of  work,  but  rather 
to  show  the  possible  effect  in  accumulating  in  a  laboratory  some  experiences 
which  should  show  on  an  inventory. 

Among  other  considerations  which  appeal  to  me  is  one  which  may  be 
worth  pointing  out.  Probably  almost  every  manufacturing  plant  develops 


WILLIS  E.  WHITNEY,   '90  85 

among  its  workmen,  from  time  to  time,  men  who  are  particularly  endowed 
with  aptitude  for  research  in  their  line.  They  are  usually  the  inventors  of 
the  company.  They  often  develop  in  spite  of  opposition.  They  are  always 
trying  new  things.  They  are  almost  of  necessity  somewhat  inefficient 
in  the  routine  production.  In  many  plants  they  are  merely  endured,  in  a 
few  they  are  encouraged.  To  my  mind  their  proper  utilization  is  a  safe 
investment.  A  research  laboratory  assists  in  such  a  scheme.  Sooner  or 
later  such  a  laboratory  becomes  acquainted  with  this  type  of  men  in  a 
plant  and  helps  them  in  the  development  of  their  ideas. 

It  is  not  a  perfectly  simple  matter  to  measure  the  value  of  a  research 
laboratory  at  any  one  time.  In  the  minds  of  some,  the  proper  estimate  is 
based  on  the  money  already  earned  through  its  work,  which  otherwise  would 
not  have  been  earned  by  the  company.  This  is  a  fair  and  conservative 
method  which  in  our  generation  ought  to  be  satisfactory  when  applied  not 
too  early  to  the  laboratories.  It  does  not  take  into  account  what  we  may  call 
the  good-will  and  inventory  value,  both  of  which  should  be  more  rapidly 
augmenting  than  any  other  part  of  a  plant.  The  experience  and  knowledge 
accumulated  in  a  general  research  laboratory  is  a  positive  quantity.  In  our 
own  case  we  expended  in  the  first  year  not  far  from  $10,000,  and  had  little 
more  than  expectations  to  show  for  it.  Our  expenses  rapidly  rose  and  our 
tangible  assets  began  to  accrue.  Perhaps  I  can  point  to  no  better  criterion 
of  the  value  of  a  research  laboratory  to  our  company  than  the  fact  that  its 
force  was  rapidly  increased  by  a  company  which  cannot  be  particularly 
interested  in  purely  academic  work.  Our  annual  expenditures  passed  the 
$100,000  mark  several  years  ago.  My  own  estimate  of  the  value  would 
probably  be  greater  than  that  of  others,  for  I  am  firmly  convinced  that 
proper  scientific  research  is  demanded  by  the  existing  conditions  of  our 
technical  age. 

Without  going  into  exact  values,  which  are  always  difficult  to  deter- 
mine, consider  for  a  moment  the  changes  which  incandescent  lighting  has 
witnessed  in  the  past  ten  years.  In  this  field  our  laboratory  has  been  active, 
in  contributing  to  both  carbon  and  to  metallic  filaments.  Moreover,  all  of 
the  improvements  in  this  field  have  been  the  product  of  research  laboratories 
of  trained  men.  In  the  case  of  our  metallized  carbon  filament,  which  has 
now  been  in  use  several  years,  the  efficiency  of  the  light  was  increased  by 
about  20  per  cent.  Among  the  carbon  lamps  of  last  year  these  were  sold  to 
the  extent  of  over  a  million  dollars. 

A  broader  but  perhaps  less  accurate  impression  of  changes  recently 
produced  may  be  gained  by  considering  the  economy  now  possible  on  the 
basis  of  our  present  incandescent  lamp  purchases  in  this  country  and  that 


86  EESEAECH    AS    A    FINANCIAL    ASSET 

which  would  have  resulted  if  the  lamps  of  only  ten  years  ago  were  used  in 
their  stead.  On  the  assumption  that  the  present  rate  of  lamp  consumption 
is  equivalent  to  about  eighty  million  25-watt  tungsten  lamps  per  year,  and 
on  the  basis  of  1*4  watts  per  candle  power  as  against  3.1  of  the  earlier 
lamps  and  charging  power  at  10  cents  per  kilowatt  hour,  we  get  as  a  result 
a  saving  of  $240,000,000  per  year,  or  two-thirds  million  per  day.  Naturally, 
this  is  a  saving  which  is  to  be  distributed  among  producers,  consumers  and 
others,  but  illustrates  very  well  the  possibilities.  It  is  interesting  to  note 
that  we  are  still  very  far  removed  from  a  perfect  incandescent  ilium  inant, 
when  considered  from  the  point  of  view  of  maximum  theoretical  light 
efficiency. 

I  see  from  advertisements  that  65,000  of  the  magnetite  arc  lamps, 
originally  a  product  of  the  laboratory,  are  now  in  use.  These  must  have 
been  sold  for  something  near  $2,000,000.  The  supply  of  electrodes,  which 
we  make  and  which  are  consumed  in  these  lamps,  should  amount  to  about 
$60,000  per  year. 

Our  study  of  the  properties  of  the  mercury  arc  produced  our  rectifier, 
vvhich  has  been  commercially  developed  within  the  past  few  years.  Of 
these,  about  6000  have  been  sold.  As  they  sell  for  not  far  from  $200  per 
set,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  this  also  represents  sales  of  over  a  million  dollars. 
The  advantage  of  these  outfits  over  other .  available  apparatus  must  also 
be  recognized  as  not  far  from  $200  for  each  hour  through  which  those 
already  sold  are  all  operating. 

In  such  a  complex  field  as  insulations  and  molded  materials  there  have 
been  many  changes  produced.  As  far  back  as  1906  we  were  using  annually  in 
a  certain  apparatus,  30,000  specially  drilled  and  machined  soapstone  plates, 
which  cost  $1.10  each.  As  the  result  of  experiments  on  substitutes  for 
such  material,  it  was  found  that  they  could  be  molded  by  us  .in  the  proper 
shape,  with  holes  in  place  and  of  a  material  giving  increased  toughness, 
at  a  greatly  reduced  cost.  As  the  result  of  this  fact,  the  price  of  the 
purchased  material  was  reduced  to  us  from  $1.10  to  60  cents,  which  in 
itself  would  have  paid  for  the  work.  But  further  developments  proved 
that  the  new  molded  material  could  be  made  for  30  cents,  which  the  foreign 
material  could  not  equal,  so  we  have  since  produced  it  ourselves.  This 
caused  a  saving  of  approximately  $24,000  annually  for  this  one  molded 
piece.  I  have  heard  of  other  cases  where  prices  to  us.  have  gone  down, 
when  we  have  obtained  a  little  promise  from  our  experimental  researches. 

In  considering  the  research  laboratory  as  a  financial  asset  there  is 
another  view  which  might  not  be  visible  at  first  sight.  It  is  the  question  of 
the  difference  between  the  value  of  the  useful  discovery  when  purchased 


WILLIS  E.  WHITNEY,   '90  87 

from  competitors  in  the  business  and  when  made  by  one's  own  company. 
It  is  not  usually  pleasant  to  have  to  purchase  inventions  after  their  value 
is  known,  no  matter  from  whom,  but  to  have  to  pay  a  competitor  for  such 
a  discovery  is  doubly  irksome.  One  is  naturally  unduly  fearful  of  its 
value  to  the  competitor,  and  he,  in  turn,  is  overestimating  another's 
power  to  use  it.  The  purchaser's  profit  is  apparently  limited  to  the  differ- 
ences between  his  efficiency  of  operating  it  and  that  of  the  original  owner. 
A  business  usually  comprises  processes  of  making  and  selling  something 
at  a  profit,  and  study  of  the  making  of  the  most  modern,  most  improved, 
most  efficient,  is  about  as  essential  as  the  study  of  the  limits  of  safe  business 
credits. 

I  was  recently  informed  by  an  officer  of  another  large  manufacturing 
company,  where  much  chemical  work  is  done  and  which  established  a 
research  laboratory  several  years  ago,  that  the  most  important  values  they 
got  from  their  laboratory  was  the  assurance  that  they  were  keeping  ahead 
and  are  at  least  prepared  for  the  new,  if  they  cannot  always  invent  it 
themselves.  Incidentally,  he  said  that  from  one  part  of  their  research  work 
they  had  produced  processes,  etc.,  which  had  saved  $800,000  a  year.  They 
are  at  present  spending  in  their  several  research  departments  a  total  of 
about  $300,000  a  year,- 

We  hear  frequent  reference  to  the  German  research  laboratories  and  a 
brief  discussion  may  be  in  place.  For  the  past  fifty  years  that  country 
has  been  advancing  industrially  beyond  other  countries.  Not  by  newly 
opened  territories,  new  railroads,  new  farm  lands,  new  water-power  sites, 
but  by  new  technical  discoveries.  In  fact,  this  advance  may  be  said  to  be 
largely  traceable  to  their  apparent  overproduction  of  research  men  by  well- 
fitted  universities  and  technical  schools.  Every  year  a  few  hundred  new 
doctors  of  science  and  philosophy  were  thrown  on  the  market.  Most  of 
them  had  been  well  trained  to  think  and  to  experiment ;  to  work  hard,  and 
to  expect  little.  The  chemical  manufactories  began  to  be  filled  with  this 
product  and  it  overflowed  into  every  other  calling  in  Germany.  These  well- 
educated  young  men  became  the  docents,  the  assistants  and  the  professors 
of  all  the  schools  of  the  country.  They  worked  for  $300  to  $500  per  year. 
They  were  satisfied  so  long  as  they  could  experiment  and  study  the  laws 
of  nature,  because  of  the  interest  in  these  laws  instilled  into  them  by 
splendid  teachers.  This  condition  soon  began  to  make  itself  manifest  in 
the  new-making  of  things — all  sorts  of  chemical  compounds,  all  kinds  of 
physical  and  electrical  devices.  I  might  say  that  pure  organic  chemistry 
at  this  time  was  academically  most  interesting.  Its  laws  were  entrancing 
to  the  enthusiastic  chemist,  and  consequently  very  many  more  doctors  were 


88  EESEAECH    AS    A   FINANCIAL   ASSET 

turned  out  who  wrote  organic  theses  than  any  other  kind.  What  more 
natural  than  that  organic  chemistry  should  have  been  the  first  to  feel  the 
stimulus?  Hundreds,  and  even  thousands,  of  new  commercial  organic 
products  are  to  be  credited  to  these  men  and  to  that  time.  All  the  modern 
dyestuffs  are  in  this  class.  Did  Germany  alone  possess  the  raw  material  for 
this  line  ?  No !  England  and  America  had  as  much  of  that.  But  Germany 
had  the  prepared  men  and  made  the  start. 

It  seems  to  me  that  America  has  made  a  start  in  preparing  men  for 
the  research  work  of  its  industries.  For  example,  it  is  no  longer  necessary 
to  go  abroad  to  get  the  particular  training  in  physical  chemistry  and  electro- 
chemistry which  a  few  years  ago  was  considered  desirable.  Advanced  teach- 
ing of  science  is  little,  if  any  more,  advanced  in  Germany  to-day  than  it  is  in 
this  country.  In  my  opinion  the  quality  of  our  research  laboratories  will 
improve  as  the  supply  of  home-trained  men  increases,  and  that  the  labora- 
tories of  this  kind  will  be  increasingly  valuable  when  analyzed  as  financial 
assets.  I  am  certain,  too,  that  the  industries  will  not  be  slow  in  recognizing 
the  growing  value  of  such  assets.  They  merely  want  to  be  shown. 

Probably  in  most  industries  there  are  what  I  may  call  spots  particu- 
larly vulnerable  to  research.  For  example,  the  efficiency  of  steam  boilers, 
based  upon  the  heat  energy  of  the  coal  used  and  the  efficiency  of 
the  engine  using  the  steam,  are  continually  being  raised.  We  may  expect, 
until  the  maximum  calculable  efficiency  is  reached,  that  this  advance  will 
continue.  The  reason  is  not  far  to  seek.  It  is  a  vulnerable  spot.  Improve- 
ment is  possible.  A  small  increase  in  efficiency  of  a  power  plant  is  an  ever- 
continuing  profit.  Great  numbers  of  steam-power  plants  exist,  and  so 
inventors  are  influenced  by  the  fact  that  new  improvements  may  result  in 
enormous  total  economies.  Every  rule  of  the  game  encourages  them.  I 
can  make  this  clearer  by  illustrations. 

Artificial  light  is  still  produced  at  frightfully  poor  efficiency.  Electric 
light  from  incandescent  lamps  has  been  greatly  improved  in  this  respect, 
but  there  is  still  room  for  greater  economies.  It  is  still  a  vulnerable  spot. 

In  the  case  of  iron  used  in  transformers,  we  have  another  such  vulner- 
able spot.  A  transformer  is  practically  a  mass  of  sheet  iron,  wound  about 
with  copper  wire.  The  current  must  be  carried  around  the  iron  a  certain 
number  of  times,  and  the  copper  is  chosen  because  it  does  the  work  most 
economically.  No  more  suitable  material  than  copper  seems  immediately 
probable,  nor  is  there  any  very  promising  way  of  increasing  its  efficiency,  but 
in  the  iron  about  which  it  is  wound  there  is  a  vulnerable  spot.  The  size  of 
the  iron  about  which  the  copper  is  wound  may  possibly  be  still  much 
further  reducible  by  improvements  in  its  quality.  In  other  words,  we  do 


WILLIS  E.  WHITNEY,  '90  89 

not  yet  know  what  determines  the  magnetic  permeability  or  the  hysteresis 
of  the  iron,  and  yet  we  do  know  that  it  has  been  greatly  improved  in  the 
past  few  years,  and  that  it  can  still  be  greatly  improved. 

Let  us  make  this  vulnerable  spot  a  little  clearer  by  considering  the 
conditions  here  in  Boston.  I  assume  there  are  approximately  50,000  KW. 
of  alternating  current  energy  used  here.  Nearly  all  of  this  is  subject  to 
the  losses  of  transformers.  If  the  transformers  used  with  this  system 
were  made  more  than  ten  years  ago,  they  probably  involve  a  total  loss,  due 
to  eddy  and  hysteresis,  of  about  $1000  per  day,  at  the  ten-cent  rate. 
Transformers  as  they  are  made  to-day,  by  using  improved  iron,  are  saving 
nearly  half  of  this  loss,  but  there  still  remains  over  $500  loss  per  day,  to 
serve  as  a  subject  for  interesting  research  work. 

It  should  also  be  noted  that  Boston  uses  only  a  very  small  fraction  of 
the  alternating  current  energy  of  this  country. 

Consider  for  a  moment  two  references  to  the  sciences  and  industry  in 
Germany  and  England.  Dr.  0.  N.  Witt,  Professor  in  the  Berlin  Eoyal 
Technical  High  School,  reporting  to  the  German  government  in  1903, 
says :  "  What  appears  to  me  to  be  of  far  greater  importance  to  the  German 
chemical  industry  than  its  predominant  appearance  at  the  Columbian 
World's  Fair,  is  the  fact  which  finds  expression  in  the  German  exhibits 
alone,  that  industry  and  science  stand  on  the  footing  of  mutual  deepest 
appreciation,  one  ever  influencing  the  other,"  etc.  As  against  this,  Pro- 
fessor H.  E.  Armstrong,  of  entirely  corresponding  prominence  and  position 
in  England,  says  of  England :  "  Our  policy  is  the  precise  reverse  of  that 
followed  in  Germany.  Our  manufacturers  generally  do  not  know  what  the 
word  research  means.  They  place  their  business  under  the  control  of 
practical  men  .  .  .  who,  as  a  rule,  actually  resent  the  introduction 
into  the  work  of  the  scientifically  trained  assistants."  If  the  English 
nation  is  to  do  even  its  fair  share  of  the  work  of  the  world  in  the  future,, 
its  attitude  must  be  entirely  changed.  It  must  realize  that  steam  and 
electricity  have  brought  about  a  complete  revolution,  that  the  application  of 
scientific  principles  and  methods  is  becoming  so  universal  elsewhere  that 
all  here  who  wish  to  succeed  must  adopt  them. 

So  long  as  motors  burn  out,  so  long  as  subways  are  tied  up  by  defect- 
ive apparatus,  so  long  as  electric  motors  can  run  too  hot,  so  long  as  street 
cars  can  catch  fire  from  so-called  explosions  of  the  current,  so  long  as  the 
traffic  of  a  whole  city  can  be  stopped  by  a  defective  insulation  or  a  ten-cent 
motor  brush,  there  will  probably  be  the  equivalent  of  research  laboratories 
somewhere  connected  with  the  electrical  industries,  where  attempts  will 
be  continually  made  to  improve. 


THE  UTILIZATION  OF  THE  WASTES  OF  A  BLAST  FUKNACE. 

By  EDWARD  M.  HAGAR,  '93, 
President,  Universal  Portland  Cement  Co.,  Chicago. 

UNTIL  the  last  decade,  practically  the  only  utilization  of  the  wastes  or 
by-products  of  a  blast  furnace  was  the  use  of  a  portion  of  the  waste  gases 
to  raise  the  temperature  of  the  incoming  blast  through  heating  the  brick- 
work in  so-called  hot  stoves,  and  in  some  cases  a  small  portion  of  the  power 
value  of  the  gases  was  obtained  by  burning  them  under  boilers  to  generate 
steam  for  driving  the  blowing  engines. 

At  the  present  time  the  calorific  value  of  the  waste  gases  is  being 
utilized  directly  in  gas  engines  for  blowing  purposes  and  for  generation  of 
electric  power,  a  considerable  portion  of  the  slag  is  used  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  Portland  cement,  and  the  flue  dust,  consisting  of  the  finest  ore  and 
coke  particles,  is  being  collected  and  converted  so  as  to  be  rechargeable 
into  the  furnaces. 

The  aggregate  saving  or  profits  resulting  from  these  three  develop- 
ments is  a  matter  of  millions  of  dollars  per  annum,  and  in  a  modern  blast 
furnace  plant,  it  would  almost  seem  that  pig  iron  was  the  by-product; 
and,  indeed  the  investment  in  the  equipment  to  utilize  these  former  wastes 
exceeds  that  of  the  blast  furnace  itself. 

The  writer,  in  his  work,  has  come  in  contact  with  these  evolutions, 
having  in  charge  plants  with- a  capacity  to  produce  12,000,000  barrels  of 
Portland  cement  per  annum  from  slag  and  limestone,  using  over  1,300,000 
tons  of  slag  in  a  year,  these  plants  being  driven  entirely  by  electric  current, 
generated  by  gas  engines  directly  from  the  waste  blast  furnace  gases,  the 
power  requirements  being  40,000  horse-power  for  twenty-four  hours  every 
working  day.  In  one  of  the  cement  plants  the  first  commercial  method  for 
reclaiming  flue  dust  was  discovered. 

By  using  the  blast  furnace  gases  directly  in  combustion  engines, 
after  suitable  washing  to  remove  the  grit,  the  power  obtained  from  a  given 
amount  of  gas  is  equal  to  at  least  two  and  one-half  times  that  obtainable  by 
burning  the  gas  under  boilers  for  generating  steam  for  use  in  steam 
engines. 

A  modern  blast  furnace  of  the  usual  size,  with  gas  blowing  engines,  and 

90 


EDWARD  M.  HAGAR,    '93  91 

gas  engines  driving  electric  generators,  will  provide  sufficient  gas  to  furnish 
7000  KW.  electric  power,  in  addition  to  driving  its  own  blowing  engines. 

This  permits  the  most  modern  steel  works,  such  as  those  at  Gary, 
Ind.,  to  practically  do  away  with  the  use  of  coal  for  power  purposes,  oper- 
ating the  rolling  mills  by  electric  power  from  the  surplus  gases. 

The  United  States  Steel  Corporation,  of  which  the  Universal  Port- 
land Cement  Co.  is  a  subsidiary,  has  already  installed  250,000  horse-power 
of  gas  blowing  and  gas  electric  units,  which,  it  can  easily  be  figured,  dis- 
places or  saves  the  consumption  of  approximately  1,000,000  tons  of  coal 
per  annum  as  compared  with  the  old-fashioned  method. 

"With  the  modern  high-blast  pressures,  and  the  use  of  fine  Missabe 
ore,  the  finest  of  the  particles,  together  with  the  coke  dust,  are  blown  out 
through  the  top  of  the  furnaces  and  are  caught  in  the  flues,  dust  catchers 
and  gas  washers. 

The  iron  ore  in  this  dust  amounts  to  fully  3  per  cent  of  the  total  ore 
charged,  which  aggregates  the  large  amount  of  approximately  1,250,000 
tons  per  annum  in  this  country.  Until  within  a  few  years,  this  dust  has 
been  thrown  away  or  used  as  filling,  although  containing  about  40  per  cent 
metallic  iron. 

For  many  years  efforts  were  made  to  use  this  material  by  compressing 
it  into  briquettes,  but  the  cost  of  the  operation,  together  with  the  fact  that 
the  briquettes  disintegrated  and  the  dust  was  again  blown  out,  led  to  an 
abandonment  of  the  briquetting  plants. 

The  first  commercially  successful  method  of  utilizing  the  dust  was 
discovered  by  passing  the  material  through  the  cement  kilns  at  South 
Chicago.  Experiments  showed  that  with  the  proper  heat  treatment,  the 
coke  dust  could  be  burned  off  and  the  iron  ore  conglomerated  into  nodules 
or  nuggets,  averaging  over  60  per  cent  iron  content.  These  nodules,  when 
fed  to  the  blast  furnace,  were  easily  and  completely  reduced.  The  fact 
that  the  sinter  of  the  flue  dust  contains  such  a  high  percentage  of  iron 
and  that  all  of  the  sinter  is  reduced,  together  with  its  physical  shape  assist- 
ing the  steady  movement  of  the  charge  downward  in  the  blast  furnace, 
thereby  preventing  so-called  slips,  makes  the  sinter  more  valuable  per  ton 
than  any  ore. 

It  was  necessary  to  devise  mechanical  means  for  preventing  the  accum- 
ulation of  the  sinter  on  the  walls  of  the  kiln.  Plants  have  been  in  operation 
for  some  years  using  this  process,  with  endless  chains  carrying  scrapers 
constantly  passing  forward  through  the  kiln,  and  cooled  in  water  on  their 
return  outside  of  the  kiln. 

Recently  other  methods  of  utilizing  dust  have  been  devised  which  may 


92 


UTILIZATION  OF  THE  WASTES  OF  A  BLAST  FUKNACE 


prove  successful  commercially,  and  the  indications  are  that  within  a  short 
time  the  greater  portion  of  this  former  waste  will  be  prevented. 

The  development  of  the  Portland  cement  industry  in  this  country 
and  the  extension  of  its  uses  have  been  marvelous,  and  the  following  table 
shows  a  remarkable  increase  in  the  production  of  Portland  cement  in  the 
United  States  every  year  since  1895,  when  this  country  first  reached  the 
production  of  approximately  1,000,000  barrels : 


Year. 

Production  of  Port  land 
Cement  of  United  Stales. 
Barrels. 

Production  of  Universal 
Portland  Cement. 
Barrels. 

Pereeri  t  atie  of  Universal    to 
total  American  Production 
of  Portland  Cement. 

1895 

990,324 

1896 

1,543,023 

1897 

2,677,775 

1898 

3,692,284 

1899 

5,652,266 

1900 

8,482,020 

32,443 

0.39% 

1901 

10,711,225 

164,316 

1.29 

1902 

17,230,644 

318,710 

1.85 

1903 

22.342,973 

462,930 

2.08 

1904 

26^05,881 

473,294 

1.78 

1905 

35,264,812 

1,735,343 

4.92 

1906 

46,463,424  . 

2,076,000 

4.55 

1907 

48,785,390 

2,129,000 

4.36 

1908 

51,072,612 

4,535,000 

8.89 

1909 

62,508,461 

5,786,000 

9.27 

1910 

73,500,000  Gov.  est. 

7,001,500 

9.52 

It  may  be  of  interest  to  note  the  increasing  percentage  of  the  total 
American  production  shown  by  Universal  Portland  cement,  which  is  the  only 
Portland  cement  manufactured  in  this  country  using  slag  as  one  of  the 
raw  materials.  With  the  new  plant  now  approaching  completion  the  aggre- 
gate production  of  Universal  Portland  cement  in  the  Chicago  and  Pittsburg 
districts  will  amount  to  over  one-eighth  of  the  country's  total.  Expressed  in 
weight,  the  output  of  the  finished  product  will  be  over  2,000,000  gross 
tons  per  annum.  Our  plants  in  the  Chicago  district  will  consume  all  the 
available  slag  that  is  suitable  for  the  purpose  from  an  aggregate  of  nine- 
teen blast  furnaces  in  the  South  Chicago  Works  of  the  Illinois  Steel  Com- 
pany and  in  the  Gary  Works  of  the  Indiana  Steel  Company. 

Comparing  the  pig  iron  production  and  Portland  cement  production 
of  this  country  in  figures  of  long  tons,  the  percentage  of  Portland  cement 
to  pig  iron  in  1890  was  six-tenths  of  one  per  cent,  in  1900  ten  and  three- 
tenths  per  cent,  and  in  1910,  forty-seven  per  cent.  The  continuation  of  any 
such  relative  growth  would  mean  that  before  1920  the  tonnage  of  Portland 


EBWAED  M.  HAGAK,   >93  93 

| 

cement  would  considerably  exceed  that  of  pig  iron.  I  would  hesitate,  how- 
ever, to  predict  that  such  would  be  the  case. 

Portland  cement  is  defined  by  the  United  States  Government  as  the 
product  obtained  from  the  heating  or  calcining  up  to  incipient  fusion,  of 
intimate  mixtures,  either  natural  or  artificial,  of  argillaceous  with  calcareous 
substances,  the  calcined  product  to  contain  at  least  one  and  seven-tenths 
times  as  much  of  lime,  by  weight,  as  of  the  materials  which  give  the  lime  its 
hydraulic  properties,  and  to  be  finely  pulverized  after  said  calcination,  and 
thereafter  additions  or  substitutions  for  the  purpose  only  of  regulating  cer- 
tain properties  of  technical  importance  to  be  allowable  to  not  exceeding  two 
per  cent  of  the  calcined  product. 

From  this  definition  it  will  be  seen  that  the  raw  material  for  Portland 
Cement  is  not  limited  to  any  particular  form  of  material ;  it  may  be  made 
from  any  combination  of  materials  that  together  furnish  the  proper 
elements.  In  this  country  Portland  cement  is  manufactured  from  a  num- 
ber of  raw  materials,  which,  with  a  few  exceptions,  may  be  classed  under 
four  heads : 

First — Argillaceous  limestone  (cement  rock)  and  pure  limestone. 

Second — Clay  or  shale  and  limestone. 

Third — Clay  or  shale  and  marl. 

Fourth — Slag  and  limestone. 

In  all  cases  the  raw  mixture  is  a  combination  of  some  form  of  clay  and 
some  form  of  lime,  and  in  the  first  and  fourth  classifications  the  clay  mate- 
rials contain  some  lime.  This  simply  reduces  the  proportion  of  lime  material 
necessary  for  a  proper  mixture. 

In  the  manufacture  of  Portland  cement  from  slag  and  limestone,  the 
molten  slag  flowing  from  the  furnaces  is  granulated  by  a  stream  of  water, 
loaded  into  cars  and  transported  to  the  cement  plants,  where  it  is  dried  in 
rotary  driers,  and  receives  the  first  grinding ;  it  is  then  mixed  in  automatic 
weighing  machines,  with  the  proper  proportion  of  ground  and  dried  cal- 
cite  limestone.  These  are  then  ground  together  and  burnt  to  a  hard 
clinker  at  a  temperature  of  nearly  3000°  F.  in  rotary  kilns,  using  pulver- 
ized coal  for  fuel. 

This  clinker,  after  seasoning,  is  crushed  and  ground  and  mixed  with 
a  small  percentage  of  gypsum  to  regulate  the  setting  time.  The  cement 
is  ground  to  such  fineness  that  96  per  cent  passes  through  a  sieve  having 
10,000  meshes,  and  80  per  cent  passes  a  sieve  with  40,000  meshes  to  the 
square  inch.  It  is  then  conveyed  to  the  stock  house  for  storage  prior  to 
shipment. 

It  is  necessary  to  use  as  a  flux  in  furnaces  supplying  slag  for  cement 


94  UTILIZATION  OF  THE  WASTES  OF  A  BLAST  FUENACE 

manufacture  a  pure  calcite  limestone.  The  limestone  burnt  with  the  slag 
must  also  be  a  pure  calcite  stone.  It  is  also  essential  that  the  ores  used  be 
of  a  uniform  and  proper  character. 

Inasmuch  as  Lake  Superior  ores  are  noted  for  their  remarkable  uni- 
formity of  anaiysis,  the  resultant  slag  obtained  from  the  use  of  these  ores 
and  a  pure  calcite  limestone,  is  more  uniform  in  its  analysis  than  any  form 
of  natural  clay  deposit  used  in  the  manufacture  of  Portland  cement,  and 
the  variation  in  the  proportions  of  the  two  raw  materials  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  Portland  cement  from  slag  is  less  than  those  of  any  other 
materials  mentioned  above. 

In  addition,  the  opportunity  for  analysis  and  selection  of  the  proper 
ingredients  through  the  use  of  an  artificial  material  is  a  great  advantage 
as  compared  to  the  necessitous  use  of  natural  materials  just  as  they  are 
found  with  their  variations  in  analysis  at  different  depths. 

In  the  intense  heat  of  the  kiln,  under  the  influence  of  the  oxidizing 
flame,  any  sulphides  in  the  slag  are  completely  burnt  out. 

The  rotary  kiln  commonly  used  ten  years  ago  was  60  ft.  long  and  6  ft. 
in  diameter.  This  has  gradually  been  increased  in  length  and  diameter 
until  the  modern  kiln  is  140  to  150  ft.  long  and  8  to  10  ft.  in  diameter,  and 
there  are  a  few  even  larger  kilns  in  use.  Kilns  a're  usually  set  at  an  incline 
of  %  in.  to  the  ft.  With  the  lining  and  contents  the  modern  kiln  weighs 
150  tons,  and  in  revolving  upon  two  bearings  presents  interesting  con- 
structional features. 

In  the  case  of  the  plant  at  Bufnngton,  Ind.,  using  26,000  horse- 
power, situated  between  South  Chicago  and  Gary,  Ind.,  electric  power  is 
supplied  at  22,000  volts  from  the  Steel  Works  at  these  points.  Each  piece  of 
machinery  is  driven  by  its  individual  motor,  supplied  with  alternating 
current  at  440  volts.  The  high  tension  line  is  connected  through  the 
cement  plants,  and  the  gas  engines  at  these  two  steel  works,  14  miles  apart, 
operate  continually  in  parallel.  This  enables  the  cement  plant  to  draw  its 
power  from  either  source,  or  from  both  sources  at  the  same  time,  as  may 
be  desirable.  It  has  happened  that  one  of  these  works  has  supplied  power  to 
operate  the  cement  plant  and  furnished  additional  power  at  the  same  time 
to  the  steel  works  at  the  other  end  of  the  line. 

The  method  of  manufacture  above  described  is  the  standard  method 
of  manufacturing  Portland  cement  from  natural  deposits,  and  the  fin- 
ished product  differs  in  no  way  from  other  Portland  cements  in  chemical 
analysis,  fineness,  specific  gravity,  color,  nor  in  the  operation  in  practical 
work.  It  has  no  peculiarities  whatever  and  has  no  limitations  as  to  its 


EDWARD  M.  HAGAB,    '93  95 

applications.  There  is  no  difference,  from  the  chemist's  point  of  view, 
between  the  manufacture  of  Portland  cement  from  natural  deposits,  such 
as  limestone  and  clay  or  shale,  and  its  manufacture  from  limestone  and 
slag.  Slag  is  really  a  mixture  of  clay  from  the  ore  with  the  lime  content 
of  the  stone  used  as  a  flux  in  the  furnace. 

Our  method  of  manufacture  of  Universal  Portland  cement  does  not 
embody  any  real  invention,  nor  is  it  based  on  any  patents.  It  is  simply  an 
adaptation  to  an  artificial  raw  material  of  the  regular  Portland  cement 
process  formerly  applied  only  to  natural  deposits. 

True  Portland  cement  in  which  slag  is  used  as  one  of  the  raw  materials, 
should  not  be  confused  with  Puzzolan,  or  so-called  "  Slag  Cements/'  which 
are  simply  mechanical  mixtures  of  slag  and  slaked  lime  ground  together 
without  burning.  Such  cements  are  suitable  only  for  use  under  ground 
and  in  moist  locations. 

The  manufacture  of  Puzzolan  cements  in  this  country  has  practically 
been  abandoned. 

The  remarkable  growth  of  the  Portland  cement  industry  is  not 
equalled  by  any  other  manufactured  article.  This  is  due  to  the  economy, 
durability  and  plasticity  of  cement  and  concrete  work.  While  large  engi- 
neering work,  such  as  dams,  bridges  and  heavy  reinforced  concrete  build- 
ings, consume  large  quantities  of  cement,  the  bulk  of  consumption  at  the 
present  day  is  in  a  multitude  of  small  uses.  It  takes  an  average  shipment 
of  only  five  barrels  a  day  to  take  care  of  the  average  customer  of  a  large 
cement  company. 

For  example,  there  is  a  steady  increase  in  the  application  of  cement 
to  new  uses  on  the  farm,  such  as  silos,  fence  posts,  barn  floors,  feeding 
floors,  watering  troughs,  corn  cribs,  etc.  There,  as  elsewhere,  concrete  is 
rapidly  displacing  all  forms  of  wood  construction,  this  process  being  has- 
tened by  the  continually  advancing  cost  of  lumber. 

Beautiful  effects  are  now  being  obtained  in  concrete  surface  finishes, 
and  its  use  in  decorative  work  is  advancing  rapidly. 

The  use  of  Portland  cement  will  continue  to  increase  until  the  cam- 
paign of  education  of  the  small  user  has  reached  its  finality.  In  this  direc- 
tion a  great  work  is  being  done  to  educate  the  general  public  in  the  proper 
use  of  cement  by  individual  manufacturers,  by  the  Association  of  American 
Portland  Cement  Manufacturers,  and  by  the  Cement  Shows  which  are  given 
in  several  of  the  largest  cities  every  year. 

In  conclusion,  it  will  be  seen  from  the  foregoing  that  most  of  the 
problems  of  utilization  of  wastes  or  by-products  of  the  blast  furnace  have 


96  UTILIZATION  OF  THE  WASTES  OF  A  BLAST  FURNACE 

been  solved,  and  that  these  solutions,  in  addition  to  being  highly  profitable, 
are  powerful  factors  toward  the  conservation  of  our  natural  resources. 

Portland  cement  manufactured  from  slag,  to  a  large  extent,  replaces 
wood;  the  waste  gases  displace  coal,  and  reclamation  of  the  flue  dust  con- 
seives  the  deposits  of  iron  ore. 


DEVELOPMENTS  IN  PAINT  AND  VAENISH  MANUFACTURE. 

By  EDWARD  C.  HOLTON,  '88, 
Chief  Chemist,  The  Sherwin-Williams  Co.,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 

FIFTY  years  ago  the  paint  and  varnish  industry  of  thjs  country  was 
in  its  infancy  and  was  under  no  scientific  control  whatsoever.  Even 
twenty-five  years  ago  the  paint  and  varnish  manufacturers  who  employed 
technical  graduates  as  engineers  or  as  chemists  were  the  exception  rather 
than  the  rule. 

Conditions  have  greatly  changed  and  to-day  some  of  the  larger  com- 
panies have  so  branched  out,  in  their  attempts  to  provide  themselves  with 
raw  materials  of  more  uniformly  good  qualities,  that  they  now  have  geolo- 
gists, mining  engineers,  electrical  engineers,  mechanical  engineers,  chemi- 
cal engineers,  metallurgists  and  chemists  constantly  employed  in  looking 
after  the  various  branches  of  their  business.  Even  the  smaller  companies 
must  make  occasional  use  of  the  mechanical  engineer  and  the  electrical 
engineer,  and  since  the  recent  activity  amongst  the  state  and  federal  law- 
makers, the  chemist  has  become  well-nigh  indispensable. 

The  mining,  milling  and  transportation  of  lead  and  zinc  ores  from 
the  mines  to  the  smelter  calls  for  the  employment  of  the  various  engineers, 
but  the  analytical  chemist  or  assayer  must  always  be  at  hand.  At  the 
smelter  the  metallurgist  or  chemical  engineer  assumes  charge  of  operations, 
but  he  depends  pn  his  chemist. 

The  mining  and  milling  of  iron  oxides,  ochres,  siennas,  umbers,  graph- 
ites, barytes,  silicates,  etc.,  are  mechanical  operations  and  are  often  carried 
on  in  a  very  crude  manner,  but  somewhere  and  at  some  time  before  the 
product  is  sold  it  is  examined  and  rated  by  a  chemist. 

In  the  manufacture  of  the  so-called  "  chemical "  and  "  lake "  pig- 
ments, chemists  and  chemical  engineers  are  indispensable.  Many  of  the 
older  and  better  known  pigments  have  been  made  for  so  many  years  that 
they  could  be  made  without  the  aid  of  trained  chemists,  but  the  margin  of 
profit  is  so  small  and  the  opportunities  for  losses  and  waste  so  great  that 
no  manufacturer  can  afford  to  be  without  a  chemist.  The  development  of 
organic  chemistry  has  been  marvelous,  and  to  it  the  paint  manufacturer  is 
greatly  indebted. 

97 


98  DEVELOPMENTS  IN  PAINT  AND  VARNISH  MANUFACTURE 

Many  of  the  fast  to  light  aniline,  toluidine,  anisidine,  naphthylamine 
and  other  lake  pigments  which  were  unknown  or,  if  known,  were  laboratory 
curiosities  twenty-five  years  ago,  are  to-day  being  made  in  American  color 
plants  to  the  extent  of  thousands  of  tons  per  annum.  The  intermediate 
organic  compounds  which  enter  into  these  lake  pigments  are  still  largely 
imported  from  Germany.  The  mineral  bases  on  which  they  are  built  are 
mostly  of  American  manufacture  and  the  diazotizing  and  combining  of  the 
organic  compounds  with  each  other  and  the  mineral  bases  are  generally 
under  the  direct  supervision  and  control  of  chemists  and  chemical  engi- 
neers trained  in  American  schools. 

Although  much  progress  has  been  made  in  the  manufacture  of  pig- 
ments, still  more  remains  to  be  done.  The  field  is  a  broad  and  interesting 
one  and  will  offer  opportunities  for  chemists  for  many  years  to  come. 

If  the  paint  manufacturer  of  to-day  were  merely  a  mixer  and  grinder, 
purchasing  from  others  all  pigments  and  vehicles  which  he  uses,  even  under 
such  conditions  he  would  be  forced  to  maintain  a  chemical  laboratory  at 
his  own  plant  or  be  in  close  touch  with  a  commerical  laboratory.  If  he 
did  not  do  so  he  would  not  know  the  composition  of  his  own  manufactured 
products  and  would  be  liable  to  fine  and  imprisonment  for  unconscious 
violation  of  state  and  federal  laws. 

The  preparation  and  manufacture  of  paint  vehicles  is  increasing 
enormously  in  kinds  and  in  quantities,  and  presents  an  ever  broadening 
field  for  the  employment  of  chemists  and  chemical  engineers.  The  lum- 
bering of  our  Southern  forests  with  attendant  decrease  of  supplies  of  gum 
spirits  of  turpentine  and  consequent  increase  in  price,  has  brought  about 
the  recovery  of  wood  spirits  of  turpentine  from  the  waste  logs,  stumps  and 
sawdust.  It  has  also  brought  about  the  use  in  much  larger  quantities  of 
coal  tar  distillates  and  petroleum  distillates  as  substitutes  for  spirits  of 
turpentine.  Here  again  chemists  and  engineers  have  worked  out  proc- 
esses of  distilliation  which  furnish  products  far  superior  to  any  which  were 
on  the  market  some  years  ago. 

About  fifteen  years  ago  China  began  supplying  us  in  a  small  way 
with  tung  oil,  and  to-day  its  use  is  enormous,  and  we  would  hardly  know 
how  to  get  along  without  it. 

Two  very  poor  flax  crops  have  recently  brought  about  a  world  shortage 
in  linseed  oil,  and  chemists  in  all  countries  have  been  busy  in  investigating 
more  thoroughly  oils  hitherto  but  little  known,  in  order  that  they  may  be 
used  as  substitutes  for  linseed  oil  if  of  value,  and  on  the  other  hand  may  be 
detected  and  identified  when  so  used. 

A  few  years  ago  the  art  of  varnish  making  was  clouded  in  mystery. 


EDWAED    C.    HOLTON,    '88  99 

Varnish  makers  taught  their  sons  or  favorite  helpers  all  they  had  learned 
from  their  predecessors  and  by  their  own  experience.  Little  by  little  they 
absorbed  information  given  to  them  directly  or  indirectly  by  chemists,  and 
profited  by  it,  but  rarely  did  they  give  anything  in  return.  To-day  the 
varnish-maker's  attitude  toward  the  chemist  is  rapidly  changing.  He 
recognizes  the  fact,  which  he  is  not  always  ready  to  admit,  that  if  he  would 
progress  in  his  craft  he  must  seek  aid  from  the  chemist.  In  many  plants 
the  chemist  and  varnish-maker  are  working  harmoniously  together,  with  the 
result  that  rapid  advance  is  being  made. 

Of  late  years  a  great  deal  has  been  written  and  said  about  the  chemical 
engineer.  This  is  an  engineering  age  and  the  chemical  engineer  is  begin- 
ning to  come  into  his  own,  and  his  future  is  bright. 

However,  it  should  not  be  overlooked  that  if  the  chemical  engineer  is 
not  first  and  foremost  a  chemist,  he  might  better  avoid  the  use  of  the 
term  "  chemical."  A  man  well  trained  in  general  chemistry,  with  some 
skill  as  an  analyst  and  synthesist,  and  with  an  active  imagination,  is  fully 
as  well  equipped  to  advance  the  cause  as  a  chemical  engineer  who  has  little 
knowledge  of  chemistry.  Some  chemical  engineers  are  needed,  and  they 
are  greatly  needed,  but  there  is  even  greater  need  for  many  well  trained, 
thorough  analytical  and  synthetical  chemists. 


RECLAMATION  OF  THE  ARID  WEST. 

By  FREDERIC  H.  NEWELL,  '85, 
Director,   United   States   Reclamation   Service,   Washington,    D.    C. 

THE  problem  of  the  reclamation  of  the  arid  west  is  being  attacked  pri- 
marily for  the  purpose,  not  of  making  men  rich,  but  of  strengthening  the 
foundations  of  the  state.  It  is  an  attempt  being  made  by  the  Federal  Gov- 
ernment almost  at  the  eleventh  hour  of  its  opportunities  to  utilize  the  waste 
resources  still  remaining  at  its  command,  and  to  employ  these  in  such  a 
way  as  to  strengthen  local  communities  and  states,  and  to  create  in  the 
more  remote  parts  of  the  country  many  prosperous  communities  com- 
posed of  independent,  landowning  citizens,  each  family  being  resident  upon 
a  farm  sufficient  for  its  support,  and  cultivating  the  soil  intensively, 
under  favorable  conditions  of  sunlight  and  of  water  supply,  such  as  to  pro- 
duce the  largest  crop  yield  per  acre,  and  to  bring  about  the  largest  indi- 
vidual success. 

The  people  thus  placed  upon  the  farms  are  not  merely  producers. 
They  not  only  raise  enough  to  support  themselves,  and  to  sell  to  their 
neighbors,  but  indirectly  they  stimulate  all  industries.  They  are  large  con- 
sumers, as  well  as  producers,  and  it  may  be  said  that  for  every  family 
placed  upon  an  irrigated  farm  on  the  desert,  there  arises  the  possibility  of 
another  family  engaged  in  transportation  or  in  manufacturing  in  the  East 
or  Middle  West.  All  parts  of  the  country  are  thus  linked  together.  The 
success  of  the  irrigator  in  the  West  means  larger  cotton  production  in  the 
South,  more  boots  made  in  Massachusetts,  more  freight  and  passenger  cars 
hauled  across  the  continent. 

In  the  matter  under  consideration  Congress  in  1888  authorized  an 
investigation  of  the  extent  to  which  the  arid  lands  might  be  reclaimed. 
This  problem  is  enormous  and  its  correct  solution  is  fundamental  to  the 
future  growth  and  development  of  the  nation,  because  of  the  fact  that  one- 
third  of  its  area  is  arid.  In  that  one-third  are  potentially  some  of  the  most 
valuable  lands  in  the  world. 

The  problem  is  to  obtain  water  for  these  lands.  This  in  turn  rests 
upon  questions  of  economics  and  engineering,  in  storage  of  flood  or  other 
waste  water,  and  in  the  adjustment  of  a  form  of  agriculture  suited  to  these 

100 


FKEDEBIC    H.    NEWELL,    '85  101 

conditions.  The  results  already  attained  show  that  the  lands  are  not  only 
capable  of  supporting  a  large  population,  but,  under  Government  auspices, 
many  thousands  of  families  have  been  settled  in  prosperous  homes  and  a 
highly  desirable  class  of  citizenship  has  been  created  in  a  most  sparsely 
populated  part  of  the  country. 

As  a  natural  outgrowth  of  the  investigation  begun  in  1888,  the  so-called 
Reclamation  Act  of  June  17,  1902,  was  passed,  setting  aside  the  proceeds 
from  the  disposal  of  public  lands  for  the  construction  of  works  for  the 
reclamation  by  irrigation  of  the  arid  and  semi-arid  lands.  It  has  been  held 
that  Congress  has  absolute  control  over  the  public  lands  and  of  the  funds 
arising  from  their  disposal,  and  while  it  might  be  questionable  as  to 
whether  the  United  States  could  levy  taxes,  and  thus  raise  money  for 
reclamation,  it  has  been  considered  that  Congress  could  properly  create  a 
trust  fund  derived  from  the  source  named.  This  fund  has  amounted  to 
over  $60,000,000,  and  is  being  added  to  at  the  rate  of  $6,000,000  or  $7,000,- 
000  a  year.  It  has  been  invested  in  the  construction  of  reservoirs,  canals  and 
distributing  systems,  and  already  27  projects  have  been  initiated  or  com- 
pleted, works  having  been  undertaken  in  each  of  the  Western  states  and 
territories. 

Over  1,000,000  acres  have  been  reclaimed,  and  14,000  families  are 
receiving  water  from  works  built  or  controlled  by  the  Government,  under 
the  terms  of  this  Act.  Reservoirs  have  been  built  having  a  capacity  of 
nearly  5,000,000  acre-ft;  that  is  to  say,  the  water  would  cover  5,000,000 
acres  to  a  depth  of  one  foot.  Canals  of  large  size,  carrying  over  800  cu.ft. 
per  second,  have  been  built  for  a  total  length  of  300  miles,  and  somewhat 
smaller  canals  constructed  with  a  length  of  1000  miles,  including  the 
ditches.  There  are  over  5,000  miles  of  water  courses,  also  nearly  70  tun- 
nels with  a  total  length  of  about  20  miles.  The  smaller  structures  number 
over  20,000,  including  bridges,  culverts,  headgates,  siphons,  etc.  Nearly 
60,000,000  cu.yds.  of  earth  have  been  excavated  and  10,000,000  of  loose  and 
solid  rock. 

The  principal  results,  however,  are  shown  in  the  crop  production,  and, 
although  the  works  are  hardly  built  to  a  point  further  than  to  try  out  por- 
tions, it  appears  that  the  value  of  the  crops  raised  in  1910  was  nearly 
$20,000,000,  and  land  values  have  advanced  from  practically  nothing  to 
$100,000,000.  These  values  will  continue  to  increase  as  the  works  near 
completion. 

The  object,  however,  as  before  stated,  is  not  to  make  men  rich,  but  to 
make  homes  for  citizens  who  will  preserve  the  institutions  of  the  country, 
and  to  do  this  without  imposing  a  burden  upon  the  taxpayers.  It  has  been 


102  EECLAMATION    OF    THE    AEID    WEST 

shown  how  this  has  been  accomplished  by  the  use  of  the  Reclamation  Fund, 
which  is  revolving  and  growing  larger  and  larger;  that  is  to  say,  as  the 
money  comes  back  from  the  works  completed,  it  is  used  over  again  and  is 
being  increased  by  additions  from  the  disposal  of  other  public  lands. 
Under  wise  administration  the  funds  should  increase  and  produce  larger 
and  larger  results  in  the  conservation  of  the  waste  waters  and  the  utilization 
of  these  in  those  parts  of  the  United  States  where  rain  is  infrequent  and 
where  the  brilliant  sunshine  can  be  depended  upon  nearly  every  day  in  the 
year.  It  is  really  the  sunlight  which  is  capitalized  and  made  valuable. 

The  question  is  frequently  asked,  Why  should  not  the  Government 
reclaim  the  worthless  lands  in  the  East?  The  answer  lies  largely  in  the 
fact  that  no  other  part  of  the  country  than  the  arid  West  has  such  wonderful 
opportunities  for  crop  production,  as  it  does  not  have  the  continuous  daily 
sunshine  upon  which  plant  life  depends.  The  advantages  of  the  develop- 
ment in  the  arid  region  also  are  greater  from  the  political  standpoint,  as 
population  is  better  distributed  and  is  brought  nearer  to  important  sources 
of  mineral  wealth,  enabling  development  of  industries  in  otherwise  remote 
and  inaccessible  localities. 

All  of  those  results  are  successful  in  proportion  as  they  have  been 
brought  about  by  scientific  methods,  and  by  following  the  principles  incul- 
cated at  the  schools  of  which  the  Institute  of  Technology  is  chief. 


SOME  NEW  CHEMICAL  PRODUCTS  OF  COMMERCIAL 
IMPORTANCE. 

By  SALMON  W.  WILDER,  '91, 
President,  Merrimac  Chemical  Co.,  Boston. 

IN  dealing  with  new  chemical  products,  the  industrial  or  manufactur- 
ing chemist  must  consider  the  situation  from  an  economic  and  commercial 
standpoint,  rather  than  a  purely  scientific  one. 

To  the  manufacturer,  a  new  chemical  product  is  not  necessarily  one  of 
recent  discovery,  but  may  be,  and  often  is,  one  that  has  hitherto  been  of  no 
value  commercially,  by  reason  of  its  high  cost  of  production,  a  lack  of 
knowledge  as  to  its  properties,  or  for  various  other  causes. 

Commercially  and  economically  speaking,  the  fundamental  questions 
concerning  the  proposition  are  in  part  as  follows : 

(1)  What  are  the  more  important  properties  of  the  product  under 

consideration  ? 

(2)  Is  there  already  an  industrial  demand  for  a  product  with  such 

properties  ? 

(3)  Is  there  reason  to  believe  that  new  demands  may  from  time  to 

time  to  be  created  for  the  product  ? 

(4)  Can  it  be  made  commercially  and  economically? 

(5)  Is  the  cost  of  plant  installation  great,  and  is  it  a  simple  matter 

for  anybody  to  make  the  product? 

(6)  Will  its  use  be  of  benefit  to  the  community  and  tend  to  create 

wealth  ? 

(This  last  question  may  seem  of  minor  consequence,  but  really  is  of 
very  great  importance.) 

(7)  Last  of  all,  does  it  appear  that  it  will  pay  to  manufacture  and 

exploit  the  new  product? 

At  the  present  time  the  necessity  of  industrial  research  work  is  quite 
generally  recognized,  and  much  is  being  done  by  various  manufacturing 
establishments  to  help  answer  the  questions  already  propounded.  I  will 
not  dwell  upon  this  phase  of  the  subject,  but  confine  myself  to  a  single 
product,  -which  may  serve  as  an  illustration  of  the  general  principle 
involved. 

103 


104  SOME    NEW    CHEMICAL    PKODUCTS    OF    IMPOBTANCE 

Several  years  ago,  as  the  result  of  seemingly  a  trifling  accident,  our 
commonwealth  made  the  acquaintance  of  the  gypsy  moth,  and  in  due  season 
learned  to  know  him  altogether  too  well.  The  few  moths  that  escaped,  as 
the  result  of  the  accidental  overturning  of  a  box,  multiplied  so  rapidly,  and 
their  offspring  proved  so  terribly  destructive,  that  our  state  realized  a  seri- 
ous situation  confronted  it.  Vigorous  measures  were  taken  to  combat 
these  pests,  and  in  connection  with  this  work  arsenate  of  lead  was  em- 
ployed, and  this  product,  while  not  a  new  one,  chemically  speaking,  yet 
was  of  no  commercial  importance,  and  therefore  from  our  viewpoint  could 
be  considered  as  a  new  product. 

Its  effectiveness,  as  applied  to  the  gypsy  moth,  was  such  that  the 
manufacturers  of  the  material  began  to  consider  it  very  carefully  from  an 
economic  standpoint,  and  to  apply  the  questions  already  cited.  Likewise 
many  new  questions  arose,  and  these  had  to  be  carefully  considered : 

What  would  be  the  result  of  the  use  of  arsenate  of  lead  in  the  case  of 
insects  other  than  the  gypsy  moth  ? 

What  should  be  the  chemical  composition  and  physical  characteristics 
of  the  most  efficient  arsenate  of  lead  ? 

What    kind    of    packages    could    be    employed    in    distributing    the 

product  ? 
and  so  on. 

The  various  problems  involved  led  up  to  a  systematic  and  careful  study 
of  the  whole  situation  and  resulted  in  a  great  number  of  experiments  and 
trials,  carried  out  under  varying  conditions,  with  all  kinds  of  trees,  shrubs 
and  plants  and  many  varieties  of  insects. 

As  is  well  known,  most  of  our  states  support  agricultural  colleges  and 
are  provided  with  well-equipped  experiment  stations,  and  these  were  fur- 
nished with  arsenate  of  lead  for  experimental  work.  Also,  many  progressive 
and  up-to-date  farmers,  fruit  growers  and  others,  in  all  parts  of  the  coun- 
try, made  use  of  the  material  and  the  results  of  their  trials  became  available. 
The  work  of  the  state  and  government  entomologists  was  likewise  very 
helpful,  and  gradually  so  much  information  was  obtained  and  so  many  facts 
demonstrated,  it  became  apparent  that  a  new  and  important  insecticide  had 
appeared. 

Now  that  the  importance  of  arsenate  of  lead  to  the  agriculturist  had 
been  established  beyond  doubt,  the  problem  of  educating  the  farmer  and 
fruit  grower  and  reaching  the  ultimate  consumer,  became  the  all-important 
one.  This,  on  the  whole,  I  think  has  been  accomplished  along  fairly 
scientific  lines.  I  may  say  in  this  connection,  it  has  been  interesting,  even 
if  not  edifying,  to  note  how  many  fake  preparations  have  been  foisted  upon 


SALMON    W.    WILDEK,    '91  105 

the  farmer  and  gardener.  Compounds  that  would  kill  hugs,  act  as  fertil- 
izers, and  do  all  sorts  of  things,  have  been  on  the  market.  Curiously 
enough,  too,  no  doubt  many  a  farmer  has  imagined  results  as  due  to  some  of 
these  nostrums,  which  really  were  the  outcome  of  a  more  vigorous  applica- 
tion of  the  hoe  and  cultivator,  stimulated  perhaps  by  an  increased  interest 
in  his  crop,  due  to  the  application  of  the  wonderful  bug-killer. 

The  growth  and  development  of  the  business  in  arsenate  of  lead  has 
been  the  result  of  missionary  and  educational  work,  as  well  as  chemical  and 
scientific.  Owing  to  the  literature  sent  out  by  manufacturers,  bulletins  and 
information  furnished  by  the  government  and  various  experiment  sta- 
tions, the  farmer  everywhere  now  knows  what  may  be  accomplished  by  the 
use  of  this  insecticide.  He  has  seen  the  practical  results  in  the  case  of 
orchards,  free  from  wormy  fruit,  increased  yields  in  truck  gardens,  and 
better  conditions  generally. 

In  the  case  of  our  cities,  towns  and  private  estates,  thousands  of 
shade  trees  now  owe  their  existence  to  the  use  of  arsenate  of  lead,  and  this 
is  a  matter  of  no  small  importance  to  those  of  us  living  near  Boston. 

The  use  of  arsenate  of  lead  has  aroused  such  an  interest  in  the  entire 
subject  of  insect  pests,  fungi,  spraying,  pruning  and  cultivating,  etc.,  that 
the  indirect  benefits  are  hard  to  realize.  Here  in  N"ew  England,  the  possi- 
bilities of  our  hill  farms  were  never  realized  as  at  present,  and  while  it 
would  be  absurd  to  say  that  same  is  due  to  arsenate  of  lead,  yet  the  intro- 
duction and  development  of  this  product  has  been  no  small  factor  in  bring- 
ing about  the  situation. 

Much  as  it  is  to  be  regretted  that  we  are  obliged  to  resort  to  the  use 
of  such  products  as  arsenate  of  lead,  yet  at  times  I  ask  myself  the  question 
if  its  enforced  use  may  not  eventually  help  to  so  educate  and  increase  the 
efficiency  of  our  agriculturist  as  to  add  greatly  to  the  wealth  and  welfare  of 
our  community. 

As  already  mentioned,  I  have  taken  this  particular  compound  as  one 
that  may  perhaps  serve  to  illustrate  the  general  principles  involved  in  the 
production  and  exploitation  of  new  chemical  products,  and  at  the  same 
time  to  indicate  how  the  use  of  such  products  may  serve  to  create  wealth 
and  be  of  benefit  to  the  entire  community. 


SECTION  B. 

TECHNOLOGICAL    EDUCATION   IN   ITS    RELA- 
TIONS TO  INDUSTRIAL  DEVELOPMENT 


INFLUENCE  OF  THE  INSTITUTE  UPON  THE  DEVELOPMENT 
OF  MODERN  EDUCATION. 

By  JAMES  P.  MUNROE,  '82, 
President  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Industrial  Education. 

IN  the  nearly  fifty  years  since  the  close  of  the  Civil  War,  the  United 
States  has  become  a  nation  far  more  changed  from  that  of  1870  than  the 
people  of  the  Civil  War  differed  from  those  of  1670.  The  developments  of 
the  earlier,  long  period  were  those  due  to  the  evolution  of  an  essentially 
homogeneous,  agricultural  and  stable-minded  population.  Those  of  the 
later  and  far  shorter  period  have  been  those  of  revolution  brought  about  by 
the  discoveries  and  applications  of  science,  by  the  influx  of  enormous  num- 
bers of  widely-differing  aliens,  and  by  the  change  of  the  predominant 
states  of  the  Union  from  communities  chiefly  agricultural  and  rural  into 
those  markedly  industrial  and  urban. 

The  life  of  the.  Institute  of  Technology  has  been  coincident,  therefore, 
with  the  most  epoch-making  period  in  American  history.  Moreover,  it  has 
not  simply  been  an  incident,  it  has  been  an  important  factor  in  this  notable 
advance.  For  upon  this  era  of  remarkable  development  it  has  had  a  direct 
and  far-reaching  influence,  both  as  a  center  of  scientific  investigation  and 
teaching,  and  through  its  graduates  and  other  students  sent  to  every  corner 
of  America  and  of  the  world. 

In  the  half -century  since  the  granting  of  the  Institute's  charter,  the 
higher,  secondary  and  elementary  schools  have  been  transformed  in  their 
methods,  in  their  aims,  and  above  all,  in  their  grasp  of  the  real  meaning  of 
education.  In  revolutionizing  methods  of  teaching,  in  changing  the  aim  of 
instruction  from  the  giving  of  information  to  the  stimulating  of  efficiency, 
and  in  emphasizing  the  fact  that  education  is  primarily  not  for  the  indi- 
vidual but  for  society,  the  Institute  of  Technology  has  taken  a  leading  and 
in  some  directions  a  pioneering  part. 

As  to  methods,  the  most  conspicuous  contribution  of  the  Institute  has 
been  the  establishing  of  the  laboratory  as  a  chief  tool  in  teaching.  The 
first  building  of  the  Institute  was  opened  in  1865.  In  it  was  provision  for 
an  ample  chemical  laboratory  wherein  students  of  that  science  might  per- 
form with  their  own  hands  experiments  demonstrating  the  various  chemi- 

109 


110         INFLUENCE  OF  INSTITUTE  UPON  MODERN  EDUCATION 

cal  phenomena.  Up  to  that  time  such  teaching  of  science  as  had  been  pro- 
vided at  all  had  been  limited  to  the  text-book  or,  under  the  most  favorable 
conditions,  to  a  few  supplementary  experiments  performed  in  class  by  the 
instructor.  The  opening  of  a  laboratory  in  which  the  student  should  him- 
self not  only  prove  the  text-book  statements  by  actual  repetition  of  the 
necessary  experiments,  but  also  reach  out  into  new  fields  of  analysis  and 
synthesis,  meant  much  more  than  a  strengthening  of  chemical  instruction 
at  the  Institute  of  Technology — it  meant  the  placing  of  an  added  resource 
in  the  hands  of  education,  more  powerful  for  the  real  training  of  youth 
than  any  which  had  been  evolved  for  centuries. 

"  To  learn  by  doing"  had  been  the  thesis  of  many  educational  leaders 
for  many  a  century ;  but  not  till  the  Institute  provided  a  chemical  laboratory 
had  there  been  an  application  of  this  sound  principle  to  students,  as  such, 
in  connection  with,  and  as  a  part  of,  their  regular  class  work.  Before  that 
time  professional  men  had,  of  course,  "  learned  by  doing  "  ;  but  they  had 
done  so  as  individuals,  in  more  or  less  haphazard  fashion,  in  the  office  of 
some  lawyer,  physician,  clergyman  or  engineer.  For  the  initial  application 
of  this  principle,  theretofore  confined  to  the  individual  learner,  to  classes  of 
mature  students,  the  world  is  indebted  to  William  Barton  Eogers — who, 
in  its  pioneering  educational  work,  was  substantially  the  Institute  of  Tech- 
nology— and  to  those  of  its  early  professors,  Charles  "W.  Eliot,  P.  H.  Storer 
and  William  Eipley  Nichols,  who  marked  out  the  path  in  which  so  great  a 
number  of  others  have  since  eagerly  gone  on. 

So  fruitful  was  laboratory  teaching  in  the  case  of  chemistry,  that  the 
Institute  almost  immediately  set  about  applying  the  same  principle  to  the 
teaching  of  physics.  This  was  a  far  more  difficult  problem ;  but  it  was  suc- 
cessfully solved,  again  by  the  enlightened  plans  of  President  Eogers,  worked 
out  by  Professors  Edward  C.  Pickering,  Charles  E.  Cross,  and  the  late  Silas 
W.  Holman. 

This  pioneer  work  in  establishing  chemical  and  physical  laboratories 
not  only  led  to  the  opening  of  similar  facilities  in  all  those  colleges  which 
included  the  sciences  in  their  curriculum,  but  also  forced  the  secondary 
schools  to  revise  their  methods  and  to  provide  for  the  teaching  of  chemistry 
and  physics  by  means  of  some  form  of  laboratory. 

More  important  than  this  material  effect,  however,  was  the  resulting 
psychological  change  in  the  attitude  of  the  educator  towards  all  types  of 
subjects  to  be  taught.  To-day  not  simply  those  who  are  pursuing  what 
used  to  be  called  the  "  natural  sciences  "  have  the  advantage  of  the  labora- 
tory method;  the  students  of  mathematics,  literature,  history,  language 
and,  indeed,  of  every  branch  of  human  knowledge— where  the  teaching  is 


JAMES    P.    MUNROE,    '82  111 

modern  and  good — pursue  their  work  through  a  more  or  less  extended 
application  of  the  laboratory  idea. 

The  development  of  the  laboratory,  moreover,,  has  not  simply  contrib- 
uted a  new  aid  to  the  instructor  in  the  work  of  training  youthful  minds  and 
powers;  it  has  radically  altered  the  outlook  of  the  teacher  upon  the  whole 
work  of  the  profession.  Never  has  education  been  in  such  a  ferment  as  dur- 
ing the  last  ten  or  fifteen  years.  This  agitation  has  had  its  rise  mainly  in 
the  fact  that  the  methods  of  teaching  have  been  undergoing,  during  that 
time,  a  revolution,  involving  great  additions  to  the  cost  of  plants  and  of 
instruction,  new  types  of  teachers,  and  a  wholesale  revision  of  the  time- 
honored  curriculum.  These  fundamental  changes  have  been  the  logical 
outcome  of  the  widespread  introduction,  in  substantially  every  branch  of 
learning,  of  the  laboratory  method;  and,  while  it  would  be  absurd  to  say 
that  the  laboratory  principle  would  not  have  been  introduced  save  for  the 
creation  of  the  Institute  of  Technology,  it  is  nevertheless  indisputable  that 
the  founders  of  this  Institution  first  had  the  foresight,  and  the  courage,  not 
only  to  provide  class  laboratories,  but  also  to  make  the  laboratory  method 
the  backbone  of  its  whole  scheme  of  teaching. 

So  extensive  a  revision  in  school  and  college  methods  would  not  have 
supervened,  however,  had  there  not  been  a  reason  for  such  change  deeper 
than  the  acquiring  of  a  new  resource  in  education.  The  laboratory  principle 
in  teaching  was  inaugurated  by  the  Institute  and  has  since  been  adopted 
by  practically  all  other  educational  agencies,  because,  during  the  nineteenth 
century,  there  had  come  about  a  fundamental  change  in  the  whole  aim  of 
education.  For  a  century  or  more,  up  to  about  1850,  the  purpose  of  formal 
education,  whether  in  school  or  in  college,  had  been  to  give  the  pupil  infor- 
mation. Since  that  time  there  has  been  a  shifting — at  first  gradual,  but 
then  more  and  more  rapid — towards  the  sounder  aim,  that  of  making  the 
pupil,  be  he  an  infant  in  the  kindergarten  or  a  graduate  student  in  the  uni- 
versity, into  an  efficient  man. 

The  idea  of  efficiency  was  uppermost  in  the  thought  of  those  merchants 
and  manufacturers  who  projected  the  Institute.  Efficiency  translated  into 
terms  of  sound  education  was  the  basis  of  what  may  well  be  called  the  writ- 
ten constitution  of  the  Institute :  the  document  prepared  in  1860  by  Profes- 
sor Rogers,  entitled  "  Objects  and  Plans  of  an  Institute  of  Technology." 
Efficiency  has  been  the  dominant  idea  in  every  step  of  the  school's  develop- 
ment. Therefore  the  men  and  women  whom  it  has  educated  have  been 
successful;  and  because  of  their  success  the  Institute  has  a  high  rank  in 
this  country  and  abroad.  It  would  have  failed  to  stand  high,  however,  had 
its  founders  and  its  successors  not  insisted  upon  those  genuine  standards 


112          INFLUENCE  OF  INSTITUTE  UPON  MODERN  EDUCATION 

of  efficiency  which  require  a  man  to  know  more  than  the  technical  details 
of  his  profession,  and  which  demand  that  his  point  of  view  shall  be  broad, 
his  interests  catholic  and  his  professional  knowledge  firmly  established  upon 
a  basis  of  what  is  well  called  humanism. 

The  success  of  the  Institute  is  mainly  due  to  the  fact  that  from  the 
beginning  it  has  required  every  one  of  its  professional  courses  to  include  a 
substantial  measure  of  so-called  liberal  studies — such  as  language,  literature 
and  economics — and  every  one  of  its  regular  students  to  pursue,  in  full 
measure,  these  more  general  exercises. 

In  making  professional  efficiency  its  goal  and  in  founding  true  effi- 
ciency upon  real  breadth  of  training,  the  Institute  of  Technology  made  a 
lasting  contribution,  not  simply  to  professional,  but  to  all  education.  It 
is  becoming  more  and  more  the  usage  to  examine  every  type  of  training 
from  the  standpoint  of  efficiency;  but  it  is  becoming  still  more  the  custom 
to  insist  that  this  efficiency  shall  be  not  merely  that  of  the  skilled  worker  but 
also  that  of  the  active  citizen  and  the  well-rounded  man.  The  fact  that 
since  its  formation  the  Institute,  often  against  serious  pressure,  has  main- 
tained this  broad,  sane  attitude  towards  efficiency  cannot  but  have  had  a 
marked  effect. 

Those  who  have  guided  the  policy  of  the  institution  have  not  been 
satisfied,  however,  with  making  its  students  efficient  merely  as  individuals. 
What  is  now  called  the  social  viewpoint  in  education  was  conspicuous  in  the 
earliest  plans  of  President  Eogers  and  his  associates  and  has  remained  a 
guiding  principle  ever  since.  The  fact  that  in  its  conception  the  Institute 
of  Technology  was  to  include  a  Society  of  Arts,  to  bring  discoveries  and 
inventions  before  the  people;  a  Museum  of  Technology,  to  present  graphi- 
cally the  development  of  science  and  the  arts ;  and  evening  classes  in  which 
the  facilities  of  the  school  should  be  placed  at  the  service  of  those  unable  to 
attend  its  classes  during  the  day,  shows  that  its  projectors  were  thinking 
more  of  the  effect  of  its  work  upon  society  than  upon  the  individual.  And 
the  really  extraordinary  record  of  its  teaching  staff  in  utilizing  their  special 
learning,  as  well  as  their  laboratory  facilities,  for  the  promoting  of  the  public 
welfare,  is  matched  only  by  the  service  of  their  students,  who,  in  going  out, 
to  the  number  of  nearly  9000,  into  professional,  industrial  and  commercial 
life,  have  most  of  them  worked  in  that  large  and  self -forgetting  spirit  which 
thinks  quite  as  much  of  the  public  good  as  of  personal  success  in  whatever 
paid  or  unpaid  activity  may  be  taken  up. 

It  would  be  easy  to  fill  many  pages  with  specific  contributions  which 
the  Institute  of  Technology,  directly  through  its  own  endeavor  or  indirectly 
through  the  men  and  women  it  has  trained,  has  made  to  education,  to  pure 


JAMES    P.    MUNROE,    J82  113 

and  applied  science,  and  to  the  public  weal.  Every  one  of  these  specific 
instances  would  be,  however,  only  a  concrete  illustration  of  those  more  gen- 
eral contributions  which  have  already  been  emphasized — contributions  that 
have  been  large  factors  in  revolutionizing  methods  of  teaching  in  all  sub- 
jects of  human  study,  in  setting  up  efficiency  as  the  chief  goal  of  education, 
in  giving  to  efficiency  its  true  interpretation,  and  in  bringing  about  the 
present  attitude  of  the  public  mind — so  changed  from  that  of  preceding 
generations — under  which  the  real  success  of  a  man  is  measured,  not  by 
what  he  has  acquired  in  money  or  reputation  for  himself,  but  by  what  he 
has  contributed,  in  proportion  to  his  ability  and  education,  to  the  common 
work  of  making  mankind  more  efficient,  more  comfortable,  better  and  there- 
fore happier. 


THE   ENGINEEEIHG   SCHOOL   GEADUATE  :    HIS    STEENGTH 
AND  HIS  WEAKNESS. 

By  HENRY  P.  TALBOT,  '85, 

Professor  of  Inorganic  and  Analytical  Chemistry,  at  the  Massachusetts  Institute 

of  Technology. 

So  much  has  been  written  and  spoken  of  late  concerning  the  success  or 
failure  of  the  various  engineering  courses  in  our  schools  of  technology  that 
a  reason  should  be  offered  for  the  introduction  of  this  topic  at  this  time. 
It  is  to  be  found,  I  think,  in  the  general  and  increasing  interest  in  these 
matters  which  is  leading  the  practicing  engineers,  the  manufacturers,  the 
men  of  affairs — in  short,  the  consumers  of  the  product  of  the  engineering 
schools — to  examine  and  evaluate  the  work  of  these  schools.  This  interest 
has  voice.d  itself  more  and  more  freely  in  the  daily  press,  the  engineering 
journals  and  the  occasional  address.  Some  of  the  comments  thus  made  are 
harshly  critical,  some  are  based  upon  sadly  insufficient  knowledge  of  exist- 
ing conditions,  but  many  are  sane  and  helpful.  It  is  the  duty  of  those  of 
us  who  are  charged  with  the  conduct  of  these  courses  to  give  heed  to  these 
utterances  and  avail  ourselves  of  the  helpful  counsel  which  many  afford; 
but  it  is  also  a  privilege  which  we  may  sometimes  allow  ourselves  to  present 
the  case  as  it  appears  to  us,  and  this  anniversary  occasion  seems  to  suggest 
both  retrospection  and  introspection. 

The  complexity  of  the  educational  problem  is  nowhere  greater  to-day 
than  in  the  training  of  the  engineer,  using  that  term  in  a  broad  sense  to 
include  the  man  who  applies  his  science  to  concrete  ends,  whether  he  be, 
for  example,  civil  engineer,  research  chemist  or  field  geologist.  The  bound- 
aries of  all  the  sciences  have  been  extended  at  a  rate  which  has  far  out- 
stripped any  reasonable  alteration  of  educational  methods  to  meet  these 
changing  conditions ;  for,  over  against  the  charge  of  undue  conservatism 
which  is  commonly  made  with  respect  to  educational  practices,  should  be 
placed  the  fact  that  seven  years  is  the  minimum  period  which  must  elapse 
before  the  ultimate  success  or  failure  of  an  educational  experiment  can  be 
determined,  and  since  the  remodeling  of  a  course  or  system  of  instruction 
to  utilize  successfully  such  of  the  newly  acquired  knowledge  as  it  is  possible 
to  include  must  often  be  the  result  of  gradually  accumulated  experience,  it 

114 


HENEY  P.  TALBOT,    '85  115 

is  plain  that  rapid  and  frequent  alterations  are  both  unwise  and  unprofit- 
able. Such  advances  in  scientific  knowledge  as,  for  example,  those  relating 
to  wireless  telegraphy,  the  turbine  engine,  or  aeroplanes,  which  are  of  such 
immediate  significance  as  to  seem  to  imperatively  demand  a  place  in  our 
courses  of  instruction,  cannot  be  allowed  to  displace  other  older  topics  of 
permanent  importance,  and  in  many  cases  these  later  developments  of 
science  are  based  upon  abstruse  principles,  the  proper  teaching  of  which, 
in  turn,  demands  much  time. 

The  educational  problem  has,  moreover,  been  rendered  more  difficult 
of  solution  by  the  concomitant  increase  in  the  number  of  men  to  be  edu- 
cated. It  is  no  longer  possible  to  give  to  the  undergraduate  that  measure 
of  personal  attention  from  a  mature  teacher,  of  strong  personality,  which 
characterized  successful  teaching  in  the  young  manhood  of  our  fathers,  and 
resulted  in  the  production  of  what  may  be  termed  "  hand-made  engineers." 
And,  again,  the  increased  ease  with  which  our  young  men  can  now  obtain 
educational  advantages  is  sending  to  our  schools  a  much  larger  proportion 
of  students  who,  while  they  are  earnest  to  a  high  degree  and  constitute  a 
most  desirable  class  of  pupils,  have  not  descended  through  generations  of 
ancestors  with  scholarly  or  scientific  instincts,  and  have  not  been  sur- 
rounded by  an  atmosphere  which  is  at  all  closely  in  harmony  with  that  of 
the  lecture  room  or  laboratory.  That  most  of  these  young  men  meet  with 
success  is  the  more  to  their  credit;  that  some  others  meet  with  only 
measurable  success  in  the  scientific  professions,  and  that  distinct  limita- 
tions, both  professional  and  social,  manifest  themselves  in  the  post-gradu- 
ate development  of  some,  is  not  surprising;  but  the  cause  is  often  mistak- 
enly ascribed  to  faulty  educational  method  when  in  truth  it  is  far  more  a 
question  of  raw  material  than  of  manufacturing  process. 

The  product  of  the  engineering  schools  has  not  escaped  the  universal 
demand  that  all  products  should  advance  in  quality  without  increase  in  cost 
— which,  in  this  instance,  means  with  little  or  no  increase  in  time  expendi- 
ture. One  needs  only  to  review  the  conditions  of  the  last  quarter-century 
to  realize  that  an  extraordinary  change  has  taken  place  in  the  position  of 
the  engineer  in  the  community.  None  of  the  older  professions  have  been 
called  upon  to  face  such  kaleidoscopic  conditions,  and  it  is  not  strange  that 
there  should  be  a  dearth  of  men  immediately  adapted  to  meet  the  altered 
situation,  or  that  many  should  be  found  to  be  partially  lacking  in  the 
extremely  composite  training  which  would  lead  to  complete  command  of 
the  field.  It  may  not  be  irrelevant  to  ask  whether  the  so-called  learned 
professions,  so  long  regarded  as  superior  to  the  engineering  professions, 
would  have  fared  distinctly  better  under  a  like  extreme  test. 


116  THE    ENGINEERING    SCHOOL    GRADUATE 

The  wholly  successful  engineer  of  the  day  (I,  do  not  speak  now  of  the 
recent  graduate)  must  be  a  man  possessing  a  capacity  for  logical,  quick, 
and  exact  thought;  a  detailed  knowledge  of  some  portion  and  a  broad 
knowledge  of  the  whole  of  his  professional  field ;  and  be  master  of  a  certain 
amount  of  the  technique  of  his  profession.  He  must  have  the  ability  to 
select  and  guide  competent  and  trustworthy  associates  and  to  obtain  from 
them  loyal  and  willing  service.  He  must  be  strong  in  his  sympathies  and 
generous  in  his  public  services;  and,  while  quick  to  enlist  desired  interest 
in  his  enterprises,  he  must  be  shrewd  in  detecting  avarice  or  perfidy.  He 
should  be  a  loyal  husband  and  father,  and  should  find  opportunity  for  that 
enjoyment  of  art  and  literature  which  will  afford  him  present  pleasure  and 
ensure  the  happiness  of  advanced  years.  It  is  a  matter  for  sincere  rejoicing 
that  the  engineering  profession  has  reached  such  a  commanding  position  in 
our  national  life  that  only  a  man  of  this  type  can  completely  fill  it ;  but  the 
imperfect  portrait  just  drawn  is  evidently  that  of  a  man  for  whom  Nature 
must  have  done  much  at  the  start,  and  toward  whose  efficiency  many  ele- 
ments must  have  contributed.  Of  the  need  of  such  men  there  is  no  doubt, 
and  it  becomes  a  question  of  paramount  importance  to  ask  how  far  the  engi- 
neering schools,  as  such,  or,  indeed,  how  far  our  entire  educational  machin- 
ery can  contribute  to  the  desired  end.  The  most  obvious  function  of  the 
engineering  school  is  to  afford  a  fundamental  knowledge  and  understand- 
ing of  the  principles  of  the  sciences  underlying  engineering  operations. 
Failure  to  do  this  seems  to  be  without  excuse,  yet  it  is  almost  inseparable 
from  another  important  function,  namely,  the  development  of  the  power  to 
think ;  for  there  can  be  no  adequate  understanding  of  principles  unless  one 
can  think  logically  in  terms  of  them  when  considering  concrete  problems. 
It  is  just  at  this  point  that  much  of  the  current  criticism  is  aimed. 
The  candid  teacher  must  admit  that  there  is  truth  in  the  charge  that 
the  graduates  are  too  often  lacking  both  in  a  capacity  for  logical 
thought  and  in  an  ability  to  command  the  knowledge  which  they 
actually  possess  to  the  degree  needful  for  immediate  or  perhaps  ulti- 
mate success  in  their  vocation.  But  it  should  not  be  supposed  that  he 
is  indifferent  to  this  state  of  affairs.  It  is  within  bounds  to  say  that 
it  is  the  supreme  desire  of  every  worthy  teacher  to  encourage  power  of 
thought  rather  than  mere  acquisition  of  knowledge  on  the  part  of  his  pupils, 
and  that  he  is  constantly  devising  and  testing  new  means  to  that  end ;  but 
a  moment's  consideration  will  show  you  how  much  this  depends  upon  per- 
sonal contact — now  so  difficult  in  even  the  smallest  practicable  subdivisions 
of  large  classes — and  will  convince  you  that  there  must  also  be  constant 
conflict  of  judgment  as  between  the  extent  of  the  field  to  be  covered  in  a 


HENRY  P.   TALBOT,    '85  117 

given  subject  (rarely  more  than  the  minimum  quantity  now-a-days)  and 
the  time  which  can  properly  be  spent  in  that  drill  which  is  necessary  to 
develop  the  powers  of  the  average  student;  for  it  is  against  the  average 
student  that  the  criticism  is  most  valid.  I  do  not  make  these  statements 
to  condone  the  conditions,  but  rather  to  show  you  that  the  teachers  recog- 
nize them,  deplore  them,  and  are  striving  against  them;  but  the  contest  is 
an  unequal  one,  at  best. 

Let  it  be  remembered,  moreover,  that  some  responsibility  for  these 
conditions  rests  upon  our  public  school  system,  and  also  that  the  sort  of 
thinking  which  the  engineering  professions  demand  is  of  a  kind  which  is 
more  exacting  than  is  essential  in  the  more  common  vocations,  and  that  no 
system  of  education  has  yet  succeeded  in  training, a  large  proportion  of 
exact  thinkers,  however  much  such  a  result  is  to  be  striven  for.  Let  us  also 
admit  for  our  encouragement  that,  after  all,  there  is  a  considerable  propor- 
tion of  our  engineering  graduates  who  can  use  their  brains  effectively  and 
do  have  their  knowledge  in  available  form,  and  my  observation  leads  me  to 
believe  that  there  is  a  much  larger  proportion  who  appear  deficient  in  these 
respects  at  graduation  but  develop  unexpected  power  when  they  have  oppor- 
tunity to  concentrate  their  efforts  in  a  more  limited  field.  Remember  that 
many  of  these  youths  have  been  in  some  sort  of  educational  training  for  a 
continuous  period  of  fifteen  to  seventeen  years,  during  which  there  has 
been  a  constant,  but  sometimes  unwise,  increase  in  the  pressure  put  upon 
them  to  cover  more  ground.  Is  it  strange  that  they  have  lacked  an  oppor- 
tunity to  sort  their  immense  stock,  or  to  become  familiar  with  it?  They 
are,  I  think,  entitled  to  charitable  consideration  for  a  time  after  entering 
their  vocation;  but  if,  as  a  class,  they  are  deficient  after  three  years,  the 
criticism  of  them  or  of  their  training  certainly  becomes  valid. 

The  public  has  a  right  to  look  to  the  engineering  schools  for  sound 
instruction  in  fundamentals,  including,  of  course,  physics  and  chemistry, 
as  well  as  the  mathematics  and  drawing  which  must  form  a  part  of  the 
equipment  of  every  competent  engineer.  In  addition,  they  may  demand 
that  the  fundamental  principles  and  something  of  the  technique  of  those 
subjects  which  are  of  general  application  within  a  given  profession  shall  be 
thoroughly  taught,  and  that  this  shall  be  done  with  reference  to  develop- 
ment of  power  and  the  inculcation  of  useful  habits,  rather  than  the  mere 
acquisition  of  information.  While  this  is  a  demand  which  no  engineering 
school  would  desire  to  evade,  let  us  recognize  that  it  is,  of  itself,  no  light 
task  to  accomplish. 

But  in  our  epitome  of  the  distinctly  successful  engineer  of  maturer 
years  was  included  breadth  of  knowledge  within  and  without  his  profession, 


118  THE    ENGINEERING    SCHOOL    GRADUATE 

the  quality  of  leadership,  which  means  power  of  initiation  and  a  knowledge 
of  men,  and  the  ability  and  inclination  to  fulfil  the  requirements  of  good 
citizenship.  Are  the  graduates  from  the  engineering  schools,  as  a  class,  in 
line  to  develop  thus  symetrically  ?  Let  us  admit  again  that  many  are  not, 
and  that  this  is  the  occasion  of  the  general  charge  of  "  narrowness  "  and 
inadequacy  which  is  directed  against  our  courses.  But  here  again  I  venture 
to  assert — not,  however,  in  a  spirit  of  complacency — that  the  situation  is 
more  complex  than  is  generally  admitted,  and  that  there  is  a  good  deal  that 
is  encouraging  in  the  situation.  Eecall  once  more  how  short  a  time  it  is  since 
the  engineer  has  occupied  a  position  in  the  community  which  is  recognized 
to  be  of  equal  dignity  with  that  of  the  so-called  learned  professions,  and 
recall  how  recent  is  that  evolution  of  our  industrial  system,  which  has  as  its 
most  important  feature  the  recognition  of  the  fact  that  the  engineer  and  the 
financier,  if  not  combined  in  the  same  individual,  must  be  on  a  parity  with 
respect  to  influence  and  authority,  if  efficiency — the  watchword  of  the  hour 
—is  to  result.  Is  there  not  cause  for  congratulation  that  some  have  been 
found  in  the  engineering  ranks  capable  of  meeting  this  surprising  increase 
of  responsibility  rather  than  ground  on  which  to  pronounce  the  general 
result  of  engineering  education  a  failure,  as  some  seem  inclined  to  do? 

It  is  well  known  that  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology 
endeavors  to  stand  to-day,  as  it  has  from  its  beginning,  for  the  largest 
measure  of  breadth  of  training  and  education  which  is  compatible  with 
thoroughness  of  fundamental  scientific  instruction.  An  inspection  of  its 
courses  as  prescribed  for  the  various  professions  shows  that,  notwithstanding 
the  pressure  resulting  from  the  growth  of  science  and  technology,  about  one- 
eighth  of  the  total  hours  which  a  student  spends  at  the  Institute  is  devoted 
to  subjects  which  are  cultural  studies,  using  that  term  to  distinguish  them 
from  those  scientific  subjects  which  may  be  regarded  as  tools  of  trade, 
although  many  of  these,  notably  such  as  physics,  chemistry,  biology,  or 
modern  languages,  if  properly  taught,  will  contribute  much  to  the  cultural 
development  of  the  well-rounded  engineer  and  the  useful  citizen  outside  of 
his  strictly  professional  field.  In  this  respect  the  Institute  has  been  a 
pioneer  in  engineering  education,  and  its  founders  took  a  position  far  in 
advance  of  the  times.  Nevertheless  the  Institute  has  not  escaped  the 
charge  of  narrowness  and  this  has  sometimes  come,  alas,  from  some  of  her 
own  sons  who  were  not  overzealous  in  availing  themselves  of  the  opportuni- 
ties offered  during  their  student  days.  More  specifically,  as  has  already 
been  implied,  it  is  charged  that  the  graduates  from  engineering  schools  are 
not  as  a  class  showing  themselves  capable  of  development  into  men  who  can 
occupy  succesfully  the  commanding  positions  already  described;  and  again 


HENRY  P.   TALBOT,    >85  119 

the  Institute  is  not  exempted.  So  far  as  this  charge  relates  to  breadth  of 
view  within  the  professions  it  is  the  immediate  and  vital  concern  of  these 
schools.  So  far  as  it  relates  to  those  traits  which  go  to  make  up  the  accom- 
plished man  of  affairs  it  is  serious,  and  demands  earnest  attention,  but  the 
remedies  are  less  obvious ;  for  these  remedies  must  mean  the  superimposing 
upon  an  already  heavy  burden  a  task  which  should  be  begun  in  the  home 
and  largely  completed  there;  a  task,  indeed,  which  no  college  has  satisfac- 
torily met  with  respect  to  all  of  its  professional  or  non-professional  gradu- 
ates. So  far  as  books  can  help,  an  added  year  of  student  life  would  seem  to 
afford  a  remedy,  and  there  has  been  much  discussion  of  the  desirability  of 
extending  the  undergraduate  course  to  five  years,  and  of  making  the  engi- 
neering schools  into  graduate  schools.  The  arguments  cannot  be  reproduced 
here,  but  it  seems  clear  that  the  added  expense  incurred  and  the  increased 
age  at  which  the  young  man  enters  his  life  work  militate  seriously  against 
the  adoption  of  either  of  these  as  a  universal  procedure.  For  those  to 
whom  such  opportunities  are  open  they  are  likely  to  prove,  of  great  value, 
and  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  each  year  seems  to  bring  to  the  engineering 
schools  a  larger  number  of  young  men  who  have  already  graduated  from 
some  college,  and  encouragement  is  also  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  more 
and  more  of  these  men  have  planned  their  courses  during  their  college  years 
with  reference  to  later  work  in  the  technical  school,  a  procedure  which  is 
much  more  to  their  advantage  than  what  Professor  Jackson  refers  to  as  a 
"butt-joint"  between  a  general  college  course  and  a  later  engineering 
course.  It  should  also  be  remembered  that  this  is  a  recent  educational 
development  and  that  these  men  have  not  yet  been  tried  out. 

One  serious  difficulty  which  technical  schools  are  encountering  has 
been  frequently  referred  to  by  recent  writers  but  deserves  mention  here, 
namely,  that  of  securing  and  holding  broad,  cultured  teachers.  Specializa- 
tion has  invaded  the  teaching  profession,  especially  in  scientific  lines 
where  the  mastery  of  any  large  field  of  knowledge  to  a  degree  correspond- 
ing to  the  needs  of  the  expert  is  rarely  possible.  The  specialist  is  apt  to 
use  the  microscope  far  oftener  than  the  field  glass,  and  this  habit  is  par- 
tially reproduced  in  his  students.  It  is  encouraging  to  note  that  certain 
schools  are  now  recognizing  the  need  of  men  who  are  efficient  teachers  with 
a  broader  outlook,  to  deal  especially  with  the  younger  men.  They  are 
recognizing  that  not  every  eminent  successful  investigator  is  a  successful 
teacher,  more  particularly  in  this  very  matter  of  breadth  of  view,  and  are 
leaving  the  specialists  greater  opportunity  for  the  presentation  of  their 
specialties  to  the  older  classes,  while  improving  the  instruction  in  the  more 
general  courses.  It  is  obvious  that  these  difficulties  are  enhanced  by  the 


120  THE    ENGINEERING    SCHOOL    GRADUATE 

larger  financial  rewards  which  tempt  the  broad-minded  engineer  away  from 
the  schools — a  serious  matter  which  cannot  further  be  discussed  here  but 
lies  close  to  the  root  of  much  of  the  cause  for  criticism.  It  is  interesting 
to  note  how  even  a  single  instructor,  of  some  engineering  experience,  who 
keeps  himself  and  his  pupils  closely  in  touch  with  current  events,  and  leads 
them  to  understand  that  no  single  human  attainment  necessarily  repre- 
sents the  best  that  can  be  done,  and  that  it  may  well  be  the  privilege  and 
the  duty  of  any  one  of  his  hearers  to  extend  the  boundaries  of  such  attain- 
ment, will  give  an  impetus  to  successful  effort  that  will  be  felt  in  the  entire 
lives  of  his  pupils.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  no  one  of  us  is  unable  to  recall 
with  gratitude  some  such  instructor.  We  need  more  of  them.  A  single 
instructor,  again,  who  exemplifies  the  cultured  scholar  and  gentleman  in 
ease  of  manner  and  grace  of  diction  does  more  for  the  cause  of  scholarship 
and  culture  than  any  quantity  of  sound  advice  can  do;  for,  I  fear  that  it 
is  Utopian  to  hope  that  a  majority  of  the  students  with  whom  the  study  of 
engineering  is  their  main  purpose  will  ever  believe  that  any  man  is  disin- 
terestedly sincere  in  his  advice  regarding  such  subjects  as  literature,  lan- 
guage, art  or  economics,  unless  he  makes  it  quite  clear  to  them  that  these 
subjects  have  a  distinct  significance  to  him  and  are  a  part  of  his  life.  Just 
here  lies  one  of  the  great  obstacles  to  the  elimination  of  "  narrowness." 

If  the  inculcation  of  breadth  of  view  and  love  of  the  refined  in  life  is 
difficult,  the  development  of  qualities  of  leadership  is  even  more  so.  That 
these  qualities  are  largely  conferred  at  birth  will,  I  suppose,  be  generally 
admitted,  but  I  take  it  that  the  criticism  of  lack  of  leadership  is  really  direct- 
ed toward  an  alleged  culpable  lack  of  facility  in  getting  the  best  from 
others,  of  appreciating  the  point  of  view  of  others,  or  of  presenting  our 
own  views  to  others.  If  this  indicates  a  failure  on  our  part  to  stir  the  ambi- 
tions of  our  students  to  avail  themselves  of  opportunities  which  come  to 
them,  or  to  plan  for  themselves  a  really  worthy  career,  then  we  are  at  fault; 
but  if  it  means  that  the  faculties  of  engineering  schools  should  further 
encourage  those  forms  of  activity  commonly  designated  as  "college  life," 
then  I  believe  that  we  are  on  debatable  ground.  Of  the  importance  of 
those  traits  which  enable  a  man  to  win  the  confidence  and  respect  of  his 
fellow  men,  to  "  succeed  "  among  men,  no  one  could  be  more  conscious 
than  I.  In  individual  cases  these  may  indeed  be  more  potent  factors  than 
accuracy  of  scientific  knowledge  in  securing  preferment,  and  any  man  is 
fortunate  who  combines  engineering  skill  with  ease  of  manner  and  per- 
suasive speech.  But  the  real  function  of  these  schools  is,  after  all,  the 
training  of  capable  engineers,  and  it  is  very  easy  to  pass  the  line  beyond 
which  there  is  grave  danger  that  both  the  quantity  and  quality  of  indi- 


HENRY  P.   TALBOT,    '85  121 

vidual  attainment  will  be  lowered  because  of  time  and  energies  devoted  to 
social  affairs.  Let  the  schools  realize  by  all  means  their  responsibilities  for 
the  development  of  men  as  well  as  engineers,  and  encourage  by  precept,  and 
especially  by  example,  an  interest  in  all  that  tends  toward  a  better  under- 
standing on  the  part  of  our  students  of  their  human  relations,  including 
prudent  encouragement  of  the  so-called  "  student  activities."  But  let 
those  who  lack  a  realization  of  the  great  changes  which  the  student  life  at 
our  technical  schools  has  already  undergone  in  the  last  few  years,  and  who 
therefore  constantly  clamor  for  more  of  what  is  called  "  college  life/7  reflect 
that  one  of  the  greatest  assets  which  a  graduate  from  one  of  these  schools 
can  take  with  him  when  he  leaves  it'  is  the  well-established  habit  of 
"doing  a  day's  work  in  a  day,"  of  meeting  his  obligations  on  time,  and 
let  him  realize  that  this  cannot  be  reasonably  demanded  if  the  instructors 
must  in  fairness  accept  excuses  because  of  an  undue  diversion  of  time  and 
energy  to  other  things.  Although  the  sciences  actually  owe  many  of  their 
advances  to  "  grinds,"  it  is  probably  fortunate  that  few  of  our  engineering 
graduates  of  to-day  belong  to  that  class ;  but  there  is  little  likelihood  of  an 
undue  increase  in  the  proportion  of  such  over-developed  scholars  under 
existing  conditions.  An  impartial  survey  will,  I  believe,  show  that  our 
recent  graduates  are,  as  a  body,  less  open  to  the  charge  of  lack  of  adapt- 
ability and  want  of  social  resources  than  formerly,  and  that  they  are 
improving  in  this  respect  as  the  need  of  such  improvement  is  more  gener- 
ally realized,  and  also  that  there  is  ground  for  the  belief  that  this  has  so 
far  been  accomplished  without  serious  sacrifice  of  professional  efficiency. 

In  what  I  have  just  said  I  have  had  in  mind  particularly  the  business 
and  social  relations  of  the  young  engineer  with  his  colleagues  and  superior 
officers.  It  is  often  stated  that  some  or  many  of  the  graduates  also  lack  an 
appreciation  of  the  proper  way  to  deal  with  those  whose  labors  they  must 
direct.  This,  again,  is  doubtless  in  some  considerable  measure  true,  and 
in  fact  it  can  hardly  be  otherwise  when  nearly  all  of  these  young  men  pass 
directly  from  the  public  schools  to  the  higher  educational  institutions.  It 
is  not,  however,  true  that  no  effort  is  made  to  bring  this  phase  of  their 
future  responsibilities  to  their  notice ;  for  not  only  is  the  subject  discussed 
in  its  general  aspects  from  the  lecture  platform,  but  the  young  men  are 
advised  to  secure  summer  employment  as  far  as  possible  to  the  end  that 
they  may  learn  to  know  industrial  conditions. 

In  this  connection  I  should  like  to  point  out  to  those  in  control  of  our 
industrial  establishments  that  there  is  a  large  store  of  energy,  combined 
with  a  desire  for  opportunity  to  work  and  ability  to  render  intelligent  and 
willing  service,  which  goes  to  waste  in  the  summer  because  our  students  are, 


122  THE    ENGINEERING    SCHOOL    GRADUATE 

unable  to  secure  temporary  positions.  This  is  particularly  true  in  the 
industries  into  which  the  men  in  whom  I  am  especially  interested,  the 
chemical  engineers  and  chemists,  will  go.  I  am  of  course  aware  that  the  net 
return  in  value  to  a  concern  from  this  temporary  service  is  not  relatively 
large,  especially  during  the  first  summer,  and  that  in  certain  industries 
there  is  a  risk  in  trusting  to  the  integrity  of  these  men  with  respect  to 
information  acquired  regarding  operating  methods.  But  I  cannot  avoid 
the  conviction  that  if  the  industrial  managers  would  cooperate  with  the 
engineering  schools  in  the  consummation  of  an  arrangement  whereby 
young  men  whose  ability  and  character  could  be  vouched  for  could  be  given 
summer  employment  for  two  or  three  of  the  sucessive  summers  intervening 
during  the  four  years  of  study,  the  concerns  thus  cooperating  would  actually 
find  that  they  would  derive  appreciable  benefit  from  the  plan.  That  it 
would  enable  the  schools  to  add  at  least  50  per  cent  to  their  efficiency,  so 
far  as  these  students  are  concerned,  I  have  no  question  whatever,  and 
surely  no  better  means  could  be  afforded  for  the  acqusition  of  a  knowledge 
of  the  problem  of  the  laborer  in  the  works.  Let  me  add  that  I  do  not  urge 
the  placing  of  these  young  men  at  once  in  positions  of  resposibility,  but 
rather  in  such  positions  as  will  afford  them  working  experience  under 
industrial  conditions.  It  seems  to  me,  however,  that  it  is  not  improbable 
that,  say,  in  a  third  summer  the  majority  of  such  men  might  be  utilized  to 
much  advantage  in  the  immediate  direction  of  specific  processes  or  opera- 
tions, they  themselves  acting  under  general  or  specific  direction. 

Some  of  us  are  just  now  concerned  to  know  how,  with  respect  to  chem- 
ical engineering,  we  can  give  the  young  men  an  opportunity  to  come  into 
contact  with  the  actual  practices  of  their  profession  before  they  leave  the 
school,  and  the  advisability  of  the  equipment  of  laboratories  of  chemical 
engineering  is  under  careful  consideration.  While  it  is  no  doubt  true 
that,  from  its  nature,  chemical  engineering  offers  less  abundant  opportuni- 
ties for  industrial  work  during  the  vacation  interval  in  a  student's  career 
than  many  other  professions,  notably  less  than  civil  engineering,  and  at 
the  same  time  is  a  profession  the  actual  practice  of  which  it  is  exceedingly 
difficult  to  reproduce  in  an  educational  plant,  I  suspect  that  similar  gen- 
eral conditions  exist  in  other  lines.  Here,  again,  is  a  problem  of  no 
small  dimensions  or  importance  with  which  we  are  wrestling,  and  one  step 
toward  its  solution  may  be  made  through  the  greater  cooperation  on  the 
side  of  the  industrial  managers  for  which  I  have  just  appealed. 

If  I  have  dwelt  more  upon  the  alleged  weaknesses  of  the  engineering 
school  graduates  than  upon  their  strength,  it  is  because  the  latter  is  attested 
by  the  engineering  advance  of  the  recent  past  to  which  they  have  contributed 


HENEY  P.   TALBOT,    '85  123 

to  an  extent  which  would  not  have  been  possible  had  not  the  majority  of 
them  received  from  the  schools  an  education  and  training  which  has  proved 
useful,  dependable  and  stimulating. 

I  believe  that  the  large  majority  of  the  engineering  school  graduates 
are  virile,  intelligent,  industrious  fellows,  with  sound  habits  of  thought  and 
great  capacity  for  work,  ambitious  to  make  the  best  of  themselves,  possess- 
ing a  sincere  desire  to  acquit  themselves  honorably  both  in  private  and  public 
life,  and  with  an  increasing  ability  to  do  so.  As  such,  we,  their  instructors, 
honor  them,  and  ask  your  cooperation,  advice  and  encouragement  in  our 
efforts  to  give  to  them  what  they  deserve,  at  our  hands.  We  ask  you  also  to 
recognize  that  while  for  the  moment  the  rapidly  changing  social  and  indus- 
trial conditions  may  have  outrun  our  ability  to  adapt  our  educational 
practice  to  them,  we  are  not  lacking  in  an  appreciation  of  the  significance  of 
these  changes  or  of  our  obligations  for  the  future. 


THE  ELEVATION  OF  APPLIED  SCIENCE  TO  AN  EQUAL  RANK 
WITH  THE  SO-CALLED  LEARNED  PROFESSIONS. 

ELLEN  H.  RICHARDS,  '73. 
Instructor  in  Sanitary  Chemistry  at  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology. 

THE  world  has  always  prized  the  artist,  the  delineator  of  the  ideal, 
the  creator  who  puts  into  visible  form  the  aspirations  of  the  human  race; 
but  it  has  contemned  the  artisan,  the  mere  worker  in  wood  and  stone, 
whose  hands  fashioned  the  thoughts  of  others. 

Until  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century,  fifteenth-century  ideals 
prevailed;  and  these  ideals,  which  sought  visible  expression  through  the 
artist  and  the  poet,  were  saturated  with  mysticism.  The  unknown  was  to 
be  reached  for  in  the  heavens — the  idealist's  feet  spurned  the  earth. 
Knowledge  was  hardly  to  be  desired  lest  the  charm  of  mystery  should  be 
lost,  and  science  was  not  welcome  since  it  laid  bare  many  fallacies.  Thus 
it  had  already  dispossessed  man  of  his  place  as  the  center  of  the  universe, 
about  whom  all  things  revolved  and  for  whom  all  things  were  created. 
When  science  had  won  a  reluctant  hearing,  the  temples  of  medieval  learn- 
ing were  protected  from  the  defilement  by  the  mere  artisan  through  rigid 
rules  as  to  the  uselessness  of  the  knowledge  permitted  and  by  requirements 
as  to  the  purity  of  results  from  earthward  tendencies.  The  learned  pro- 
fessions of  law  and  theology  did  not  deal  with  materials,  and  even  medi- 
cine was  unpractical.  Toward  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century,  how- 
ever, the  earth's  crust  lifted;  and  the  four  and  twenty  lines  of  scientific 
endeavor,  now  known  as  the  various  branches  of  engineering,  chemistry, 
physics,  electricity,  sanitation,  etc.,  began  to  call  loudly,  if  not  in  musical 
form,  for  recognition  and  for  aid  in  perfecting  their  power. 

The  devotees  of  traditional  culture  viewed  with  abhorrence  this  level- 
ing demand:  they  refused  to  soil  their  hands  with  artisan's  tools,  even  to 
gain  the  artist's  creative  power,  and  they  scorned  this  new  creative  force 
because  it  was  to  be  used  to  advance  the  material  welfare  of  men. 

Such  was  the  atmosphere,  laden  with  the  blinding  dust  which  the 
culturists  had  raised,  in  which  a  few  prophetic  souls  started  a  fan  to  clear 

124 


ELLEN  H.  RICHARDS,   '73  125 

away  the  obscuring  smoke  of  anathema  and  objurgation.  In  such  an 
atmosphere,  in  1861,  the  Institute  was  founded  to  give  instruction  in 
useful  knowledge,  "  to  teach  the  application  of  science  to  the  practical  arts 
of  life  to  human  comfort  and  health,  and  to  social  wealth  and  power." 

It  required  twenty  years  of  discussion,  persuasion,  explanation  to 
develop  this  thought  of  the  worth  of  the  study  of  man  in  his  earthly  environ- 
ment and  of  the  nobility  of  the  professions  which  gave  to  man  control  of  the 
earth  through  knowledge  of  its  forces.  The  breaking  up  of  traditions,  and 
the  bringing  forward  of  new  leaders,  were  necessary  accompaniments  of 
the  development  of  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  whose  busi- 
ness it  was  to  be  to  train  the  scientific  leaders  of  national  progress. 

For  the  aristocracy  of  learning  still  held  out  against  the  useful  dollar 
and  retarded  the  progress  of  civilization  by  a  veritable  ostracism  of  the 
devotees  of  applied  science.  To  ally  oneself  with  the  Institute  of  Technol- 
ogy, for  at  least  ten  years  after  its  organization,  was  to  cut  oneself  off 
from  much  that  college  professors  considered  desirable.  The  smells  and 
stains  of  the  chemical  laboratory  were  as  plebeian  as  the  callouses  on  the 
hands  of  the  road-side  stone-breaker.  One  instance  of  this  is  the  sacrifice 
made  by  William  P.  Atkinson,  the  first  professor  of  history  and  English  at 
the  Institute,  who,  in  the  words  of  another,  "allied  himself  with  an  institu- 
tion unpopular  among  his  associates  "  because  of  "  his  belief  in  the  impor- 
tance of  the  radical  educational  idea  "  of  the  new  school.  To  him  is  due 
the  early  development  of  liberal  studies,  which  is  a  unique  feature  of  the 
Institute  work. 

Why  was  all  useful  work  tabooed?  Was  it  a  relic  of  Eoman  slavery, 
of  feudal  and  priestly  tyranny?  The  common  people  were  shut  out  from 
participation  in  the  rites  of  learning.  One  of  the  early  fruits  of  true 
democracy  in  education  was  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  the 
people's  university  of  science,  where  the  work  done  was  for  the  benefit  of 
the  people  and  not  for  a  class.  So  strong  was  this  feeling  on  the  part  of 
many  of  the  early  workers  that  the  taking  out  of  patents  for  new  and 
possibly  money-making  processes  was  refused  as  not  a  suitable  profes- 
sional attitude  for  the  scientific  worker. 

The  Institute  of  Technology  boldly  cut  out  a  new  path  and  a  new 
profession  as  truly  for  the  benefit  of  man  as  the  old  "humanities."  It 
was  a  long,  hard  struggle,  as  only  those  who  felt  the  sting  of  actual  con- 
tempt can  realize.  So  rapid  has  been  the  recent  development  of  the  sci- 
ences, as  applied  to  useful  ends,  and  the  consequent  honor  accruing  to  the 
worker,  that  it  seems  almost  incredible  that  as  late  as  1894,  sanitary  chem- 
istry was  refused  a  place  in  the  curriculum  of  a  new  university  because  its 


126         APPLIED    SCIENCE    AND    THE    LEAENED    PROFESSIONS 

aim,  the  practical  one  of  securing  better  health,  for  the  race,  was  not  "  pure 
science,  which  could  be  of  no  use  to  any  one." 

By  what  means,  then,  did  the  object  of  the  Institute — "the  advance- 
ment, development  and  practical  application  of  science  in  connection  with 
arts,  agriculture,  manufacture  and  commerce" — become  accepted  as 
socially  respectable?  How  did  the  scientist  and  artist  come  to  be  dis- 
tinguished from  the  artisan? 

It  was  by  the  differentiation  of  the  technological  from  the  technical, 
by  the  combination  of  the  activity  of  the  brain  with  the  work  of  the  hands. 
That  Technology  graduate  is  recreant  to  his  Alma  Mater  who  allows  the 
term  technical  school  to  be  applied  to  it  without  protest.  Technical  means 
pertaining  to  the  arts,  technological  to  the  science  of  the  arts.  Technology 
is  the  incorporation  of  higher  scientific  knowledge  into  the  arts,  a  process 
that  is  now  taking  place  to  such  an  extent  that  one  may  almost  say  the 
"  science  of  yesterday  is  the  technology  of  to-day."  And  a  characteristic 
distinction  between  a  technological  and  a  technical  school  is  that  the  one 
gives  laboratory  instruction,  the  other  shop  practice.  It  is  the  laboratory 
method  which  has  made  Technology  a  scientific  university  and  its  graduates 
professional  engineers,  chemists,  architects,  etc.  In  the  words  of  General 
Walker,  "  it  led  the  world  in  the  introduction  of  laboratory  practice,"  and 
in  an  address  commemorating  the  twenty-fifth  anniversary,  Mr.  Augustus 
Lowell  said :  "The  Institute  of  Technology  has  been  preeminently  a  leader 
in  a  new  method  of  education." 

Almost  at  the  very  outset  a  long  step  forward  was  taken  in  the 
establishment  of  a  laboratory  of  general  chemistry.  Up  to  that  time  general 
chemistry  had  been  taught  wholly  by  means  of  text-books,  or  by  lectures 
with  experiments  by  the  lecturer.  The  student's  part  was  only  to  look  on 
and  to  listen.  It  was  not  until  the  student  was  put  into  the  laboratory 
that  he  did  or  discovered  anything  for  himself.  Under  the  inspiration  of 
Professor  Eogers  and  the  direction  of  Professors  Charles  W.  Eliot  and 
Frank  H.  Storer,  a  laboratory  of  general  chemistry  was  established  and  the 
pupil  from  the  first  day  of  his  chemical  studies  was  set  to  teach  himself. 
He  was  thrown  upon  his  own  faculties  of  observation  and  reflection.  He 
learned  to  measure  his  own  power,  and  he  acquired  ease  and  accuracy  of 
manipulation  by  practice.  So  far  as  is  known,  this  was  the  first  laboratory 
of  such  a  character  set  up  in  the  world.  Certainly  it  was  the  first  one 
instituted  in  the  United  States  for  the  instruction  of  considerable  classes 
of  pupils.  The  publication  of  Eliot  and  Storer's  Manual  of  Chemistry, 
designed  for  students  taking  this  course,  marked  an  epoch  in  the  history 
of  chemical  education. 


ELLEN  H.  EICHAEDS,    '73  127 

Another  equally  important  step  in  the  scientific  education,  and  one 
of  which  the  originality  is  beyond  doubt,  was  taken  at  about  the  same  time 
by  the  establishment  of  the  laboratory  now  known  as  the  Eogers  Laboratory 
of  Physics.  Under  the  inspiration  of  President  Eogers,  the  scheme  of  a 
laboratory  where  the  student  of  physics  should  be  set  to  make  observations 
and  conduct  measurements  for  himself,  in  demonstration  and  illustration 
of  the  physical  laws  taught  in  the  lecture  room,  was  carried  out  with 
remarkable  ability  by  Professor  Edward  C.  Pickering,  now  Director  of  the 
Harvard  Astronomical  Observatory. 

Tradition  did  not  hamper  here;  for  there  was  none.  There  was  a 
virgin  field  to  be  surveyed,  plotted,  built  upon ;  and  the  development  of 
this  new  idea  in  education  fell  to  the  lot  of  that  remarkable  group  of  men 
constituting  the  first  Faculty  of  the  Institute,  led  by  the  true  artist  Eogers, 
who  could  see  the  statue  in  the  uncarved  marble,  the  painting  on  the 
untouched  canvas. 

The  brunt  of  developing  the  laboratory  method,  from  the  first  so  suc- 
cessful with  a  few  students,  to  meet  the  requirements  of  large  classes  of 
100  to  200  in  chemistry  and  physics  was  borne  by  two  young  men,  gradu- 
ates of  the  Institute  and  ardent  disciples  of  the  founder,  who  literally 
gave  their  lives  to  the  work — William  Eipley  Nichols  and  Silas  W.  Holman. 
To-day  when  laboratory  methods  are  universal,  one  can  hardly  appreciate 
their  labors. 

Of  the  ideal  which  .inspired  them,  Professor  Holman  writes : 

"  In  education  for  the  technological  professions,  the  inculcation  of  the 
scientific  method  of  inquiry  into  new  problems  is  of  even  greater  impor- 
tance than  the  accumulation  of  facts;  for  the  application  of  this  method 
with  practical  sagacity  is  the  one  highroad  to  succesful  encounter  with 
every  problem  of  nature,  whether  of  the  most  practical  or  of  the  most 
abstract  character.  Precisely  here  lies  the  great  strength  of  the  laboratory; 
for  although  the  scientific  method  enters  into  all  branches  of  scientific  work, 
nowhere  else  does  everything  combine  to  its  enforcement  as  here.  Eye, 
ear  and  hand  are  brought  into  action  to  deepen  and  vivify  the  mental 
impression.  Material  things,  energy  and  force,  with  their  immutable  laws, 
confront  the  student,  inspire  his  imagination,  excite  interest  and  impress 
the  memory;  while  the  sense  of  gaining  mastery  over  the  implements, 
machines  and  materials  of  his  profession  will  give  earnestness  to  purpose 
and  permanence  to  impressions. 

"Moreover,  this  special  body  of  work  stands  forth  above  all  others  in 
adaptability  to  that  sort  of  rigorous  training  in  scientific  observation, 
manipulation  and  method  which  should  characterize  a  technical  course, 


128         APPLIED    SCIENCE    AND    THE    LEARNED    PROFESSIONS 

serving  at  once  as  a  challenge  and  a  test.  The  directness  with  which  the 
false  result  can  be  confronted  with  the  true  and  stubborn  fact  are  among 
man)''  reasons  for  its  adoption. 

"  Its  importance  lies  not  only  in  the  intrinsic  merit  of  the  lines  of 
work  which  it  suggests,  but  also  in  the  opportunity  it  affords  of  employing 
instead  of  antagonizing  one  of  the  greatest  educational  forces,  the  enthusi- 
asm of  the  student."  He  says,  moreover,  "  Breadth  of  mind  and  grasp  of 
the  scientific  method  can  be  as  effectually  cultivated  by  research,  rightly 
conducted,  in  applied  science  as  in  pure  science." 

Bearing  in  mind  the  difference  between  the  technical  and  the  techno- 
logical, it  will  be  seen  that  a  mere  practice  laboratory  is  not  sufficient. 
There  must  be  the  stimulus  to  new  applications  of  the  already  acquired 
knowledge,  and  this  stimulus  comes  quickest  and  most  forcibly  from  the 
outside  world  which  feels  a  need  and  demands  a  remedy.  The  pure  sci- 
entist used  to  claim  that  this  was  commercialism,  and  he  refused  his 
brother  investigator  recognition;  but  this  spirit  has  never  prevailed  within 
the  Institute  of  Technology.  From  its  earliest  years,  its  laboratories  have 
contributed  to  the  development  of  industry,  the  maintenance  of  the  public 
health,  and  the  promotion  in  other  ways  of  human  welfare. 

It'is  now  recognized  by  students  of  educational  tendencies  that  prac- 
tical problems  offer  the  greatest  stimulus  to  research  in  pure  science — that 
some  of  the  most  brilliant  work  of  the  past  century  has  been  done  because 
of  this  stimulus.  The  person  applying  the  result  is  usually  a  different 
individual  from  the  one  who  makes  the  discovery,  but  if  he  benefits  his 
race  and  advances  civilization,  is  the  former  any  less  deserving  of  a  good 
name  ?  So  solidly  was  this  foundation  of  service  to  the  community  laid  in 
the  early  years  of  the  Institute  that  its  professors  have  come  to  be  the 
referees  in  disputes,  and  its  laboratories  the  resort  of  the  manufacturer 
who  has  problems  to  solve  and  difficulties  to  overcome. 

All  that  is  needed  for  greater  productiveness  is  that  the  business  man 
and  manufacturer  shall  more  fully  appreciate  the  opportunities  which  the 
Institute  offers  him  for  the  solution  of  his  difficulties,  and  that  he  be  ready  to 
lend  his  financial  support  for  the  carrying  on  of  important  investigations 
upon  the  applications  of  science  to  his  industrial  and  sanitary  problems. 


THE  GENERAL  EDUCATIONAL  VALUE  OF  THE  STUDY  OF 
APPLIED  SCIENCE. 

By   ALAN   A.    CLAFLIN,   '94, 
President  of  the  Avery  Chemical  Co.,  Boston,  Mass. 

THE  one  great  reproach  made  to  modern  material  philosophy  is  that, 
while  so  many  physical  problems  have  been  conquered,  there  has  been  slight 
progress  intellectually  or  morally.  We  have  seen  the  physical  laws  not  only 
of  our  own  planet,  but  of  the  universe  computed.  Indeed,  by  the  aid  of 
the  spectroscope  we  have  accomplished  the  almost  unimaginable  feat  of 
determining  the  chemical  constituents  of  some  celestial  bodies.  Space  has 
been  annihilated  by  the  wonders  of  applied  electricity,  all  methods  of 
locomotion  revolutionized,  and  even  the  question  of  mechanical  flight  is  in 
a  fair  way  of  solution.  In  the  short  period  of  less  than  one  hundred  years 
the  industrial  developments  made  possible  by  applied  science  have  changed 
in  all  civilized  communities  the  immemorial  struggle  for  existence  into  a 
struggle  for  comfort  and  luxury.  Despite  all  this,  it  is  claimed  with  much 
justice  that,  so  far  as  pure  reason  is  concerned,  we  to-day  have  certainly  not 
advanced,  and  probably  have  retrograded  since  that  climax  of  ancient  erudi- 
tion, the  Golden  Age  of  Greece.  When  we  see  the  selfishness  of  our  present- 
day  commercialism,  the  prodigal  waste  of  private  and  public  wealth,  the 
ludicrous,  were  it  not  so  sad,  extravagance  of  expenditure  for  military  and 
naval  preparations,  to  say  nothing  of  crimes  of  violence,  lust  and  avarice,  we 
realize  how  little  we  have  progressed  from  that  ancient  and  heathen  world 
that  listened  to  the  greatest  moral  force  the  world  has  ever  known,  Jesus  of 
Nazareth. 

Before,  however,  we  accept  this  reproach  as  an  essential  limitation  of 
positive  philosophy,  is  it  not  permissible  for  us  to  inquire  whether  this  lack 
of  intellectual  and  moral  progress  is  really  a  failure  of  the  new  learning 
or  a  consequence  of  the  persistence  of  the  old  metaphysical  and  scholastic 
ideal?  In  other  words,  before  we  admit  that  human  nature  is  essentially 
fixed  and  the  same,  whether  it  travels  in  the  scythe-wheeled  chariot  of  the 
ancient  Persian  or  in  the  modern  rubber-tired  automobile,  whether  it  flies 
in  imagination  with  the  waxen  wings  of  Daedelus  or  on  the  back  of  a  Belle- 

129 


130       EDUCATIONAL    VALUE    OF    STtDY    OF    APPLIED    SCIENCE 

rophon,  or  flies  in  actuality  in  the  motor-driven  aeroplane,  may  we  not  ask 
for  a  suspense  of  judgment  until  time  shall  actually  determine  what  are 
the  intellectual  and  moral  influences  of  this  philosophy  which  has  wrought 
so  tremendous  material  changes.  Indeed  it  seems  permissible  that  we  put 
forward  the  hypothesis  that  the  scientific  method,  which  has  revolutionized 
the  world  in  a  physical  sense,  may  have  as  profound  influence  on  its  intel- 
lectual and  moral -development.  This  hypothesis  brings  us  directly  to  the 
subject  of  our  paper — the  general  educational  value  of  the  study  of  applied 
science. 

While  modern  positive  philosophy  dates  from  Sir  Francis  Bacon  in  the 
sixteenth  century,  and  the  inspiration  of  Bacon  can  be  traced  back  to  the 
Greek  philosophers,  particularly  to  Aristotle,  less  than  fifty  years  have  seen 
the  theory  of  evolution  firmly  established.  Lamarck  in  thought,  in  a  large 
measure,  anticipated  Darwin,  but  Darwin  supplied  the  proof.  Proof  is 
generally  admitted  to  be  the  essence  of  the  modern  philosophic  method ;  it 
33  that  which  distinguishes  the  modern  positive  philosophy  from  the  phi- 
losophy of  the  Greeks.  All  the  great  leaders  in  modern  scientific  thought 
from  Bacon  down  through  Newton,  Kant,  Hegel,  Darwin,  and  Spencer 
have  enunciated  this.  But  what  these  writers,  thinkers  and  workers  have 
done  for  the  scholars  of  the  world,  the  teachers  of  applied  science  to-day 
are  doing  for  the  masses.  They  are  doing  it  by  the  material  successes  accom- 
plished by  the  students  of  their  sciences.  The  most  ignorant  can  appreciate 
the  proof  that  electrical  power  is  a  form  of  energy  when  he  is  conveyed  to 
his  work  by  a  trolley  car,  and  the  proof  that  this  energy  can  be  changed  into 
heat  when  he  compares  the  modern  electrical  car  heater  with  the  straw 
which  was  supposed  to  keep  his  feet  warm  in  the  old  horse  cars. 

In  ancient  Greece  the  aim  of  education  was  to  supply  good  citizens. 
In  Sparta,  where  the  military  ideal  was  the  only  ideal,  education  meant 
preparation  for  the  army,  and  how  well  the  Spartans  succeeded  in  their 
purpose  is  known  to  every  student  of  Greek  history.  In  Athens,  however, 
where  Greek  civilization  blossomed  in  that  wonderful  period,  the  fifth 
century  B.  C.,  education  was  threefold.  Students  were  instructed  in  gym- 
nastics; in  grammar,  which  included  literature;  and  in  art.  Each  of  these 
branches  was  taught  interdependent  on  the  others,  thus  instruction  in  art 
included  music,  and  this  in  turn  included  dancing,  which  pertained  to 
gymnastics.  The  instruction  included  particularly  the  study  of  Homer, 
whose  poetry  on  the  other  hand  wandered  into  the  province  of  music.  This 
education  was,  however,  for  the  few;  all  the  drudgery  in  Athens  was  per- 
formed by  slaves.  The  artisan  class  was  made  up  of  resident  aliens ;  it  was 
the  citizen  few  who  received  the  education.  Under  such  conditions  educa- 


ALAN   A.    CLAFLIN,    '94  131 

tion  and  intellectual  cultivation  resemble  the  propagation  of  plants  in  a 
hothouse;  and  as  in  the  hot  house  by  removing  many  buds  a  few  splendid 
flowers  may  be  obtained,  so  a  few  splendid  intellects  were  developed  in 
Athens.  The  education  of  the  citizen  class  as  a  whole  was  superficial. 
Xone  appreciated  this  better  than  Socrates,  who  went  to  the  artisans  to  find 
real  knowledge.  The  Greek  philosophy  began  in  abstract  speculation,  but 
under  the  hothouse  system  of  cultivation  the  best  intellects  appreciated  the 
limits  of  a  system  which  did  not  include  observation  and  experiment. 
Socrates,  as  we  have  seen,  went  outside  to  the  artisans  to  find  real  knowl- 
edge, but  was  troubled  by  their  colossal  ignorance  of  everything  but  their 
particular  handicraft.  Aristotle  came  to  his  love  of  natural  sciences  from 
his  father,  who  was  a  physician.  Unfortunately  before  the  influences  of  the 
few  great  minds  who  had  gone  outside  the  narrow  educational  limits  of  the 
time  could  make  headway  in  the  direction  of  material  progress,  the  glass  of 
the  hothouse  was  destroyed,  to  continue  our  simile,  by  the  rigor  of  the 
elements  outside.  In  this  case,  of  course,  the  elements  represent  the  Spar- 
tans, the  Macedonians  and  finally  the  Romans. 

These  conquering  people  were  softened  and  cultivated,  it  is  true,  by 
the  influences  of  Athenian  education ;  but  as  the  mass  of  the  Athenians  were 
not  sufficiently  advanced  to  appreciate  Socrates  and  Aristotle,  so  these  new 
peoples  did  not  rise  to  the  intellectual  level  of  the  earlier  Greeks.  There- 
fore we  find  for  a  very  long  period  an  intellectual  degeneration,  not  so 
much  due  to  lack  of  capacity  as  to  lack  of  opportunity;  for  in  every  case 
when  the  people  acquired  the  arts  of  peace  they  lost  the  art  of  war,  and 
Mere  overcome  by  a  more  hardy  but  vastly  more  ignorant  people.  Thus  we 
find  the  explanation  why  it  took  two  thousand  years  of  time  for  the  world 
to  advance  beyond  the  philosophy  of  Aristotle.  In  Eoman  civilization  the 
mechanical  arts  reached  a  high  state  of  development.  Yet,  despite  the 
ability  of  the  Romans  as  civil  engineers  and  architects,  they  did  not  have  the 
scientific  method  of  thought.  Their  roads  and  bridges,  temples  and  monu- 
ments were  rather  triumphs  of  empiricism  than  the  accomplishments  of 
applied  science.  While  advanced  mathematics  had  been  worked  out  by 
Pythagoras  and  many  physical  laws  established  by  Archimedes,  who, 
though  Greek,  belongs  to  the  Roman  era,  the  limitations  of  these  sciences 
were  not  appreciated  and  the  scientific  method  of  thought,  the  method  which 
Lewes  defines  as  systematic  verification,  was  not  understood.  Pliny  does  not 
approach  Aristotle  as  an  accurate  zoologist,  nor  Livy,  Thucydides,  as  an 
accurate  historian. 

To  trace  the  development  of  that  philosophy  which  has  for  its  funda- 
mental tenet  this  principle  of  systematic  verification  from  the  period  of 


132       EDUCATIONAL    VALUE    OF    STUDY   OF    APPLIED    SCIENCE 

Home's  greatness  to  the  Kenaissance,  and  from  the  Eenaissance  to  the  time 
of  Bacon,  its  great  expositor,  lies  hardly  within  the  scope  of  this  paper. 

With  the  seventeenth  century  this  principle  began  gradually  to  be 
appreciated,  primarily  because  of  the  writings  of  Bacon.  The  study  of 
material  phenomena  supported  by  reasoning  on  this  principle  is  admittedly 
the  cause  of  the  splendid  material  development  of  the  past  century.  Dur- 
ing this  period  many  writers,  notably  Comte  and  Mill,  have  urged  the 
importance  of  considering  sociological  problems  by  the  same  method,  and, 
as  is  well  known,  our  modern  method  of  history  study  is  founded  on  Nie- 
buhr's  appreciation  of  this  principle.  But  great  as  the  influence  of  these 
leaders  of  thought  may  be  allowed  to  be,  the  masses  are  unaffected  by  it. 
The  average  student  to-day  absorbs  the  critical  method  of  history  study  on 
faith  in  his  instructor,  just  as  the  student  eight  hundred  years  ago  absorbed 
the  philosophy  of  Abelard.  It  is  this  tendency  of  the  human  mind  that  leads 
us  to  emphasize  the  value  of  the  study  of  applied  science  as  opposed  to  pure 
science.  In  the  study  of  pure  science  there  is  the  danger -of  the  abstract, 
and  the  study  of  the  abstract  is  the  path  that  leads  to  acceptance  on  faith 
rather  than  by  proof.  Applied  science,  because  it  is  to  be  applied,  essen- 
tially must  be  concrete,  and,  as  is  everywhere  now  agreed,  must  be  taught  by 
the  experimental  method.  By  this  experimental  method  the  student 
acquires  unconsciously  the  scientific  method  of  thought.  He  learns  the 
value  of  truth  as  established  by  himself,  which  must  be  ever  greater  than 
that  taken  on  faith  from  someone  else,  for  skepticism  is  ever  the  progeny 
of  credulity.  With  a  general  appreciation  of  what  is  truth,  may  we  not 
look  for  a  greater  intellectual  and  moral  progress?  Every  system  of  phi- 
losophy, every  religion  has  been  founded  primarily  on  a  desire  for  truth,  yet 
the  means  for  providing  this  truth  have  been  lacking.  In  applied  science 
the  innate  human  desire  for  truth  begins  to  be  satisfied.  The  science  is 
the  thought,  the  application  is  the  verification. 

How  rapidly  the  world  will  improve  morally  (and  morally  here  is  used 
in  the  sense  of  including  sociological  welfare)  by  the  spread  of  the  scientific 
method  of  thought,  it  is  of  course  as  impossible  as  it  is  unscientific  to  pre- 
dict. What  has  been  accomplished  is  ever  our  most  illuminating  guide, 
and  the  conquest  of  disease  by  science  is  as  great  a  moral  gain  as  it  is  a 
material  one.  Three  hundred  years  ago  the  average  duration  of  human  life 
was  (according  to  the  best  obtainable  data)  under  seventeen  years,  forty 
years  ago  it  was  by  statistics  under  thirty,  to-day  it  is  over  forty-five.  The 
men  whose  work  has  made  possible  this  extension  of  human  life  are  not 
likely  willfully  to  work  out  the  means  to  take  it.  The  very  improvement 
noted  in  our  introduction  by  which  the  struggle  for  existence  has  become  a 


ALAN   A.    CLAFLIN,    >94  133 

struggle  for  comfort  is  really  a  great  moral  gain.  As  we  saw  how  in  Athens 
the  presence  of  great  numbers  of  slaves  to  do  the  drudgery  assisted  in  the 
splendid  development  of  the  few,  so  may  it  not  be  that  the  luxury  obtained 
to-day  from  the  harnessing  of  great  natural  forces  may  make  possible  a 
further  and  more  general  intellectual  development?  When  education  con- 
sisted primarily  of  the  study  of  history  and  that  history  which  was  studied 
comprised  merely  a  catalogue  of  wars  and  conquests,  it  certainly  was  to  be 
expected  that  the  martial  spirit,  rather  than  the  humanitarian,  would  be 
created  in  the  students.  Applied  science,  from  its  definition,  is  in  its  broad- 
est sense  useful  and  therefore  beneficial  to  mankind.  This  of  course  does  not 
preclude  our  present-day  proneness  to  apply  modern  scientific  achievements 
to  our  means  of  destroying  our  fellow-men — for  example,  the  modern  high- 
power  gun,  high  explosives,  and  military  aeroplanes.  However,  this  relapse 
into  barbarism  is  simply  an  anachronism,  which  we  excuse  on  the  ground  of 
police  duty  and  protection,  or  upon  the  plea  that  we  are  making  war  such  a 
terrible  weapon  that  no  one  will  dare  to  use  it.  What  we  are  really  doing 
with  war  is  making  it  into  a  kind  of  game,  serious,  it  is  true,  but  neverthe- 
less a  game  with  well-defined  rules.  If  we  were  really  anxious  to  take  life 
by  scientific  means,  we  would  go  to  the  bacteriologists  and  have  them  study 
the  propagation  of  epidemics  instead  of  the  prevention  of  them,  but  this  is 
barred  by  the  rules  of  the  game,  and  so  we  go  to  the  explosive  works  and 
the  steel  mill,  spend  much  money  and  make  war  about  one-eighth  as  dan- 
gerous as  it  was  five  hundred  years  ago.  From  this  it  is  evident  that  we 
really  are  not  using  our  best  scientific  effort,  as  often  alleged,  to  destroy 
men,  but  only  wasting  a  part  of  it  in  an  absurd  sort  of  game.  In  Sparta 
would  a  means  of  destroying  an  enemy  have  been  overlooked?  This  con- 
sideration of  the  subject  of  war  makes  obvious  that  the  true  endeavor  of  sci- 
ence is  aimed  at  the  conservation  of  human  life  rather  than  its  destruction. 
Thus  we  realize  that  we  are  beginning  to  recognize  the  purpose  of  human 
life,  which  recognition  is  the  highest  intellectual  accomplishment.  What 
we  try  to  save  we  learn  to  love.  By  teaching  us  to  save  our  fellow-man  sci- 
ence teaches  us  to  love  him,  which  was  The  Message  to  mankind  nearly  two 
thousand  years  ago. 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  MINING  SCHOOLS. 

By  ROBERT  H.  RICHARDS,  '68, 

Professor  of  Mining  Engineering  and  Metallurgy  at  the  Massachusetts  Institute 

of  Technology. 

MOST  of  the  American  mining  schools  are  located  near  mines  and 
smelters,  and  their  students  may  ask  and  obtain  the  privilege  of  visits 
which  illustrate,  explain  and  give  life  to  instruction.  The  Massachusetts 
Institute  of  Technology  was  located  at  a  point  distant  from  mines  and 
smelters,  and  was  therefore  obliged  to  find  some  substitute  method  of 
securing  the  practical  side  of  the  training.  In  consequence,  this  Institute 
was  the  first  to  devise,  develop,  and  make  use  of  the  modern  laboratory  of 
mining  engineering  and  metallurgy. 

Some  of  the  other  factors  that  have  made  the  development  of  the 
mining  course  at  the  Institute  difficult  may  be  mentioned.  In  the  first 
place,  most  American  mining  schools  devote  the  whole  four  years  to  pro- 
fessional work.  The  Institute  of  Technology,  true  to  its  traditions,  gives 
an  all-round  education,  including  history,  literature,  language,  political 
economy,  etc.  This  greatly  limits  the  time  available  for  the  professional 
instruction.  Secondly :  In  the  Institute  there  have  been  organized  and  car- 
ried on  fourteen  professional  courses  of  study  leading  to  the  Bachelor's 
degree,  each  course  having  one  or  two  professional  ends  in  view  which  are 
not  very  far  apart  from  each  other.  The  mining  engineer,  being  more  or 
less  of  a  pioneer,  requires  the  fundamental  knowledge  involved  in  nearly  all 
these  professional  courses.  This  proposition  sounds  preposterous  and 
absurd ;  but  it  is  none  the  less  true  and  must  be  met  by  special  adaptation  of 
the  instruction.  Finally,  the  mining  engineer  is  excessively  exposed  to 
insidious  temptations  to  get  rich  quickly  through  wild-cat  mines  and  the 
like.  This  demand  in  the  case  of  the  young  mining  engineer  needs  an  extra 
livet  to  strengthen  his  character,  which,  like  that  of  all  engineers,  must  be 
irreproachable.  There  are,  then,  four  threads  to  follow  in  this  discussion : 
practical  experience,  general  education,  the  great  diversity  of  professional 
demand,  and  the  development  of  integrity. 

I.  Practical  Experience.  When  the  value  of  experience  was  under 
discussion  many  years  ago  before  the  American  Institute  of  Mining  Engi- 
neers, Alexander  L.  Holley  (of  Bessemer  fame)  put  forward  the  question, 

134 


ROBERT    H.    RICHARDS,    '68  135 

"  Should  practical  experience  precede,  accompany  or  follow  the  school 
training  of  the  mining  engineer  ?  "  In  the  years  that  have  followed  we  have 
had  this  question  constantly  in  mind,  and  with  us  the  answer  to  it  has 
worked  out  in  this  way :  If  a  student  goes  to  work  in  a  mine  before  coming 
to  the  school,  there  are  many  things  that  may  happen  to  prevent  his  ever 
coming  to  the  school.  He  may  get  injured,  he  may  get  married,  he  may  get 
monotonized,  etc.  Again,  if  he  stays  at  work  too  long,  his  mind  may 
become  too  rigid  to  do  good  work  at  school.  Therefore,  only  the  most  per- 
sistently methodical  person  can  carry  out  such  a  program.  If,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  student  postpones  the  getting  of  experience  till  after  his  school 
training  is  completed,  he  fails  to  get  the  best  results  from  that  training. 

All  consideration  and  experience  therefore  point  to  the  importance  of 
having  the  practical  work  go  along  with  the  school  training.  This  we  have 
attained  in  the  Mining  Department  of  Technology  in  three  ways:. 

1.  In  the  laboratories  of  mining  engineering  and  metallurgy,  machines 
and  furnaces  are  chosen  to  give  the  most  perfect  extraction  that  can  be 
obtained  on  the  small  scale,  even  to  the  extent  of  departing  somewhat  from 
large  scale  designs.     It  is  easy  and  simple  to  explain  in  the  lecture  the 
reason  for  the  variations.     The  arguments  for  small  size  are  that  they 
save  expense  in  bringing  ores,  and  they  save  time  and  labor  for  the  student 
in  doing  the  work.    We  have  always  put  the  laboratory  before  the  lecture 
work  if  possible   (giving  only  a  brief  talk  to  introduce  the  class  to  the 
laboratory  work) ;    for  a  lecture  given  to  explain  experience  is  worth  two 
'ectures  given  to  describe  the  unknown. 

2.  Summer    visits    have    been    made    to    mines,    concentrators    and 
smelters;    systematic  writing  up  of  notes  being  required.     Through  the 
great  kindness  and  helpfulness  of  the  managers  of  mines  and  smelters,  stu- 
dents have  been  given  opportunities  to  work  during  the  summer,  and  thus 
gain  a  practical  knowledge  and  experience  in  mining  and  smelting.    When 
they  come  back  to  school,  the  lecture  then  becomes  an  explanation  of  their 
experience  rather  than  an  abstract  treatment,  and  as  such  has  far  greater 
effect.     The  work  of  the  department  becomes  real,  and  all  things  have  a 
meaning  which  were  previously  more  or  less  misty. 

3.  The  second  term  of  the  fourth  year  is  devoted  to  a  thesis  in  mining, 
metallurgy  or  geology.     Here  the  student  makes  an  investigation  into 
methods  of  ore  treatment  by  concentrating  or  smelting,  studies  metals, 
slags,  mattes,  etc.,  writes  up  some  geological  field,  or  makes  an  exact,  careful 
study  of  rocks  to  find  out  their  geological  history. 

II.  Professional  Diversity.     In  order  to   secure  the  time  which  is 
needed  for  work  in  other  professional  courses,  the  following  plan  is  fol- 


136         THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  MINING  SCHOOLS 

lowed.  Certain  courses  are  taught  with  all  the  completeness  possible,  these 
being  used  to  give  the  kind  of  mental  training  which  the  student  must 
have.  In  certain  other  subjects,  descriptive  lectures  are  substituted  for  the 
analytical,  mathematical  study  required  in  other  professional  subjects.  The 
idea  in  these  lectures  is  to  bring  out  the  fundamental  principles,  without 
which  success  would  not  be  attained.  The  effort  is  to  train  him  to  be  an  all- 
round  engineer  who  is  ready  to  tackle  any  problem  that  may  come  to  him. 
In  teaching  subjects  requiring  mathematical  treatment,  it  is  sought  to 
make  the  subject  as  simple  as  possible :  there  is  plenty  of  mental  gymnastics 
involved  without  making  the  subject  especially  difficult  for  that  purpose. 

III.  General  Education.      The    importance    of    a    liberal    education 
to  a  mining  engineer  is  so  well  recognized  as  to  need  no  discussion  here. 
The  methods  of  making  good  in  spite  of  the  loss  of  time  involved  is  indi- 
cated under  the  last  heading. 

IV.  Integrity.     The  only  way  to  develop  character  in  students  is  for 
the  teachers  to  live  it  themselves,  and  to  strive  against  all  unfairness  and 
all  injustice  to  the  utmost  degree.     The  student  is  treated  uniformly  as  if 
the  school  were  carried  on  for  his  special  benefit.    Kindness,  sympathy  and 
helpfulness  are  striven  for  to  the  greatest  possible  extent. 


In  addition  to  its  educational  work,  a  mining  school  of  high  grade  is 
under  obligation  to  contribute,  through  the  investigations  of  its  staif  and  its 
students,  to  the  development  of  the  science  and  industry  of  mining,  metal- 
lurgy and  mining  geology.  This  the  Mining  Department  of  the  Institute 
has  done  in  many  ways.  Perhaps  the  most  pronounced  improvements  of 
industrial  value  have  been  in  the  direction  of  classifiers  for  concentrating 
ores.  New  principles  have  been  discovered  and  applications  of  them  devel? 
oped,  which,  when  they  are  completely  understood  and  applied,  will  save 
millions  of  dollars  every  year  in  recovering  metals  which  are  now  wasted. 
These  new  devices  will  go  a  long  way  in  helping  the  future  development  of 
the  enormous  deposits  of  low-grade  ores  which  will  surely  be  worked  some 
day,  although  they  are  of  too  low  grade  to  be  worked  at  present. 


THE  PUBLIC  FUNCTION  OF  THE  LABORATORIES  OF  SCHOOLS 

OF  ENGINEERING. 

By  H.  W.  HAYWARD,  '96, 

Assistant  Professor  of  Applied  Mechanics,  at  the  Massachusetts   Institute  of 

Technology. 

THE  keynotes  in  the  history  of  all  successful  industrial  enterprises  of 
recent  years  have  been  standardization  and  efficiency.  The  profits  returned 
in  many  cases  have  been  about  in  proportion  to  the  completeness  with  which 
these  features  of  the  organization  have  been  worked  out  with  regard  to  raw 
material,,  process  of  manufacture,  and  finished  product. 

In  order  that  any  industrial  operation  may  be  carried  out  economically,, 
it  is  necessary  that  the  different  departments  be  supplied  with  material  of  a 
suitable  and  uniform  quality.  On  this  account  the  success  of  any  manufac- 
turer depends  largely  upon  his  ability  to  control  his  raw  material,  or  what 
is  better,  to  adapt  material  from  a  great  many  sources  to  his  needs.  In 
large  plants  complete  laboratories  for  testing  materials,  chemically  and 
physically,  are  usually  maintained,  where  the  treatment  required  for  any  raw 
material  may  be  determined  and  its  course  from  department  to  department 
through  the  works  be  closely  watched,  in  order  that  the  product  shall  be  of 
standard  quality.  Smaller  plants  cannot  afford  the  complete  laboratory 
and  get  along  with  very  meager  equipment ;  others  make  no  laboratory  tests 
at  all,  and  depend  entirely  upon  the  judgment  of  their  superintendents  and 
foremen,  or  upon  experiments  made  in  the  works. 

In  order  that  a  steady  advance  may  be  made  along  all  lines  it  is  neces- 
sary that  study  and  research  be  constantly  carried  on  to  improve  the  proc- 
esses of  manufacture  in  use,  to  develop  new  and  more  economical  methods, 
and  to  find  uses  for  by-products  that  may  be  useless  at  present.  Only  the 
very  large  companies,  with  their  complete  laboratories,  can  give  much  time 
to  research,  and  only  a  comparatively  small  number  of  them  care  to  employ 
competent  men  for  this  purpose;  for  the  special  apparatus  required  is 
costly,  and  often  very  little  immediate  return  is  realized  from  considerable 
outlay.  The  smaller  plants  cannot  afford  to  go  into  the  question  to  any 
very  great  extent,  as  their  equipment  is  inadequate,  and  experiments  carried 

137 


138     FUNCTION  OF  LABORATORIES  OF  SCHOOLS  OF  ENGINEERING 

on  in  the  works  are  usually  expensive  and  interfere  with  the  routine  of  the 
plant. 

Large  private  laboratories  are  conducted  in  different  cities  and  they  do 
splendid  work  for  their  clients.  Although  a  great  deal  of  their  work  is  of 
a  confidential  nature,  and  on  this  account  not  available  to  the  public,  some 
of  these  laboratories  devote  a  considerable  amount  of  time  to  general  ques- 
tions of  importance  and  contribute  valuable  data  for  publication  in  various 
journals. 

Many  consulting  engineers  maintain  laboratories,  but  they  are  usually 
for  special  purposes  and  not  very  completely  equipped.  In  many  of  these 
laboratories,  however,  very  valuable  data  have  been  obtained  which  have 
been  published  for  general  use.  The  consulting  engineers  are  very  active  in 
the  engineering  societies,  and  their  work  in  this  line  has  been  of  great  ser- 
vice to  their  profession. 

There  are  two  other  classes  of  laboratories  to  be  considered:  those 
conducted  by  the  Government,  and  those  in  the  various  scientific  schools. 
.The  Government  laboratories  do  very  efficient  work  along  very  broad  lines, 
but  it  is  rather  difficult  for  other  interests  than  the  Government  to  get  work 
done  in  them. 

The  laboratories  of  a  school  of  applied  science  are  particularly  adapted 
for  work  that  cannot  be  carried  on  efficiently  in  other  places.  The  com- 
plete equipment  of  such  laboratories  allows  the  undertaking  of  almost  any 
problem,  and  among  its  instructing  staff  some  man  can  usually  be  found 
who  is  specially  fitted  to  attack  it.  The  large  number  of  students  who, 
every  year,  are  required  to  carry  out  some  special  work  as  a  graduation 
thesis,  furnish  the  means  whereby  problems  of  considerable  magnitude  may 
be  thrashed  out  under  competent  supervision  and  at  very  little  expense  to 
the  outside  interest.  Special  men  can  almost  always  be  put  to  work 
in  the  laboratory  on  any  problem,  if  the  interested  party  will  pay  a 
reasonable  sum  for  the  man's  time,  it  being  of  course  understood  that  the 
work  shall  not  in  any  way  interfere  with  the  educational  requirements  of 
the  laboratory.  Cooperation  of  this  kind  makes  possible  research  along 
industrial  lines  which  cannot  be  carried  on  in  any  other  way.  The  instruct- 
ing staff  in  many  technological  schools  are  encouraged  to  work  upon  prob- 
lems of  general  interest,  and  the  results  of  their  labors  are  many  times  of 
great  value. 

The  work  that  has  been  accomplished  by  the  laboratories  of  the  Insti- 
tute of  Technology,  in  the  engineering  field,  needs  no  praise.  It  speaks  for 
itself.  Almost  every  line  of  industry  has  been  benefited  by  the  data  result- 
ing from  work  accomplished  by  members  of  the  instructing  staff  or  by  stu- 


H.  W.  HAYWA&D,    >96  139 

dents  in  their  thesis  work.  The  efficiency  of  the  graduates  of  the  Institute 
shows  just  as  well  that  the  educational  side  of  the  problem  has  been  well 
handled,  and  it  would  seem  that  the  proposed  new  Institute,  with  its  better 
facilities,  closer  cooperation  with  State,  city  and  industrial  interests,  should 
stand  at  the  head  in  everything  pertaining  to  standardization  and  efficiency 
in  both  the  industrial  and  educational  world. 


THE  NEW  PKOFESSION  OF  ECONOMIC  ENGINEEKING. 

By  ROGER  W.  BAB  SON,  '98, 
President,  Babson's  Statistical  Organization,  Wellesley  Hills,  Mass. 

THE  president  of  one  of  the  largest  of  our  country's  great  industrial 
organizations  once  asked  me  as  to  the  best  college  to  which  to  send  his  son, 
who  was  about  to  graduate  from  a  preparatory  school.  The  father  said  that 
he  desired  to  fit  his  boy  to  become  vice-president  of  his  great  corporation 
and  eventually  to  take  his  position  as  president  and  have  entire  charge  of 
its  investments,  its  property  and  its  employes.  Knowing  that  the  head  of 
&uch  a  corporation  should  have  some  knowledge  of  machinery  and  engi- 
neering, I  immediately  suggested  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technol- 
ogy. This  captain  of  industry,  however,  replied,  "  No :  I  have  carefully 
considered  its  engineering  courses,  and  have  concluded  that  the  Institute 
would  not  give  my  son  an  adequate  education.  I  do  not  wish  him  to 
become  an  engineer,  so  interested  in  the  details  of  his  work  as  to  lose  sight 
of  the  great  commercial  questions,  especially  as  I  can  always  obtain  experts 
who  have  far  greater  knowledge  in  their  own  lines  than  my  son  could  ever 
acquire.  I  wish  him  to  have  a  thorough  training  in  general  economics, 
banking,  transportation  problems,  and  especially  a  well-grounded  knowledge 
of  fundamental  business  conditions,  in  order  always  correctly  to  diagnose 
present  conditions  and  to  be  forewarned  as  to  what  the  future  is  to  bring 
forth."  / 

Thereupon  I  recommended  that  he  send  his  son  to  a  certain  great 
university  which  gives  a  most  thorough  course  in  economics;  but  to  this 
the  father  strenuously  objected,  because  the  university  in  question  did  not 
have  a  sufficiently  practical  engineering  department,  and  because  he  did 
not  approve  of  the  doctrines  taught  in  its  economic  courses.  I  then  sug- 
gested that  his  son  take  a  general  four-year  course  at  some  other  university 
and  then  two  additional  years  of  engineering  work  at  the  Massachusetts 
Institute  of  Technology;  or,  as  an  alternative,  I  suggested  that  his  son 
spend  four  years  at  the  Institute  and  then  two  years  at  the  Harvard  School 
of  Business  Administration.  To  this,  however,  he  also  objected,  saying  that 
his  son,  who  is  not  much  of  a  student,  wished  to  enter  business  without 
much  further  education;  and  although  he  agreed  that  the  six  years, 

140 


EOGEB   W.    BABSON,    >98  141 

divided  in  either  of  the  two  above-mentioned  ways,  would  be  an  ideal  com- 
bination, yet  he  believed  six  years  was  too  long  in  this  instance.  In  con- 
clusion, he  stated  that  the  period  of  study  must  be  limited  to  frmr  years, 
and  that  the  course  must  be  such  as  might  be  called  Economic  Engi- 
neering." 

The  above  well  illustrates  the  position  which  many  men  of  affairs 
take  relative  to  higher  education  for  administrative  positions ;  and  whether 
or  not  we  fully  agree  with  it,  we  should  adapt  ourselves  to  conditions  and 
not  to  theories ;  and  I  hope  to  see  the  Institute  be  the  first  to  make  definite 
provision  for  meeting  this  well  justified  demand. 

The  kind  of  course  which  I  have  in  mind  may  be  outlined  as  follows : 
The  first  year  might  be  identical  with  the  other  courses  at  the  Institute, 
while  in  the  second  year  the  student  might  take  up,  with  the  general  work 
common  to  the  engineering  courses,  the  study  of  bookkeeping  and  business 
mathematics,  and  begin  the  study  of  applied  economics.  The  third  year, 
the  student  might  specialize  along  the  lines  of  options,  and  begin  the  prac- 
tical engineering  work  most  applicable  to  the  special  option  chosen.  These 
options  might  well  include  a  Manufacturing  Option,  a  Transportation 
Option  and  a  Banking  Option.  For  instance,  beginning  with  the  second 
}rear,  a  young  man  would  decide  whether  he  desires  to  enter  manufacturing, 
railroading  or  banking  and  general  business.  If  he  decides  to  enter  manu- 
facturing, he  will,  before  graduating,  take  some  fairly  advanced  studies  in 
mechanical  engineering.  If  he  decides  to  enter  the  transportation  business, 
he  will  take  strong  courses  in  railroad  engineering  and  electrical  engineer- 
ing. If,  on  the  other  hand,  he  intends  to  go  into  banking  or  general  busi- 
ness, he  will  study  the  financial  side  of  railroad  and  industrial  enterprises 
as  well  as  the  further  advanced  features  connected  with  general  banking. 

The  main  reason  why  I  am  anxious  to  have  the  Institute  establish 
such  a  course  of  "  Economic  Engineering  "  is  because  there  probably  is  no 
other  institution  in  our  land  so  well  fitted  to  perform  this  service.  There 
are  institutions  which  can  give  a  good  course  in  economics,  and  there  are 
those  which  can  provide  a  good  course  in  industrial,  railroad  and  general 
engineering;  but  there  are  very  few  which,  like  the  Institute,  are  in  a 
position  to  operate  a  strong  combined  course  such  as  this  new  course  should 
be.  In  fact,  this  combination  feature — that  of  uniting  the  strong,  broad 
business  training  with  the  highest  class  of  practical  engineering,  will  make 
the  course  especially  valuable.  Moreover,  I  know  of  no  other  school  or  uni- 
versity which  could  successfully  operate  such  a  course  without  incurring 
tremendous  additional  expense^  in  order  to  provide  attractive  and  suitable 


142          THE    NEW   PROFESSION    OF    ECONOMIC    ENGINEERING 

laboratories  for  the  practical  application  of  great  industrial  and  transporta- 
tion problems. 

Not  only  is  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology  best  fitted  to 
inaugurate  such  a  course,  but  its  establishment  would  greatly  help  the 
Institute  on  the  public  and  financial  sides,  especially  by  causing  the  leaders 
of  industry  to  interest  themselves  more  directly  in  its  work,  by  attracting 
young  men  of  wealth  who  seek  to  prepare  themselves  for  administrative 
rather  than  engineering  positions,  and  thus  creating  a  body  of  alumni  of 
greater  financial  power. 

Irrespective,  however,  of  the  general  demand  for  such  a  course  tb-day 
and  of  the  Institute's  need  of  such -students  as  this  course  will  attract,  there 
is  a  far  greater  reason  why  all  of  us  should  aid  in  the  establishment  of  a 
course  in  Economic  Engineering.  I  refer  to  our  nation's  need  for  men 
trained  along  these  lines.  The  need  of  a  scientific  education,  such  as  the 
institute  provides,  and  its  value  to  the  community  have  been  so  well 
expressed  by  President  Maclaurin  and  others  in  their  recent  appeal  to  the 
Massachusetts  legislature,  that  it  is  unnecessary  for  me  to  dwell  on  this 
point.  As  to  whether  engineering  training  or  economic  training  produces 
more  for  a  community,  I  will  not  discuss.  The  engineering  courses  are  here 
to  stay,  and  we  must  do  everything  possible  to  advance  their  growth  and 
efficiency;  but  I  feel  nevertheless  that  future  efforts  along  educational  lines 
should  be  directed  to  turning  to  practical  use  the  teachings  and  conclusions 
of  our  foremost  economists. 

Our  nation  has  grown  industrially  with  great  rapidity.  We  have  the 
largest  manufactories,  the  greatest  railroad  systems  and  the  most  powerful 
industrial  organizations  in  the  world.  We  unfortunately  have  also  the 
greatest  panics  and  the  most  reckless  "booms,"  whch  are  very  largely  due 
to  the  lack  of  economic  training  in  our  colleges.  Every  feature  of  mechani- 
cal, electrical  and  chemical  engineering  has  been  taught  in  its  minutest 
details ;  but  to  the  great  fundamental  factors  of  trade,  upon  which  the  ulti- 
mate progress  of  all  our  industrial,  electrical  and  transportation  enter- 
prises rests,  we  have  given  only  the  briefest  consideration.  For  this  reason, 
probably  more  than  any  other,  although  America  leads  in.  many  industrial, 
transportation  and  allied  industries,  yet  we  have  one  of  the  poorest  monetary 
and  credit  systems  on  the  face  of  the  globe.  Young  men  are  graduated 
from  our  universities  capable  of  solving  problems  involving  descriptive 
geometry,  least  squares  and  the  calculus;  but  are  utterly  unable  intelli- 
gently to  discuss  the  fundamental  principles  of  credit,  trade  and  con- 
servation. 

Our  country  has  magnificent  natural  resources,  great  tracts  of  iron, 


ROGER    W.    BABSON,    '98 


143 


copper  and  other  ore,  millions  of  square  miles  of  most  fertile  fields,  great 
forests  of  splendid  timber,  abundance  of  water  power,  coal  deposits  and 
hundreds  of  other  blessings.  On  the  other  hand,  our  people  are  wasting 
these  resources,  misdirecting  their  efforts  and  playing  at  politics  because 
the  graduates  of  our  colleges  are  not  thoroughly  grounded  in  applied  eco- 
nomics. Our  nation  is  like  a  big,  healthy  boy,  endowed  with  wealth  and 
surrounded  with  luxury,  blessed  with  a  robust  constitution,  but  utterly 
untrained.  We  waste  our  wealth,  we  misdirect  our  efforts,  we  become 
recklessly  crazy  during  a  period  of  prosperity  and  shamefully  distressed 
during  a  period  of  depression,  simply  because  the  men  at  the  head  of  our 
industries  lack  sufficient  knowledge  of  applied  economics  and  are  utterly 
untrained  in  the  study  of  fundamental  business  conditions.  Therefore,  I 
appeal  to  every  man  before  me  to  use  his  efforts  to  provide  a  course  whereby 
the  young  man  must  not  simply  choose  between  becoming  a  mechanical 
engineer  or  a  bachelor  of  arts,  but  rather  may  graduate  as  an  "  Economic 
Engineer  "  and  thus  become  a  member  of  a  new  profession. 

All  of  us  have  been  intensely  interested  in  what  Mr.  Brandeis  and 
other  leaders  have  recently  been  preaching  relative  to  intensified  labor; 
but  this  work  of  Mr.  Brandeis  and  that  of  some  of  our  own  men  who  speak 
at  this  Congress  is  simply  one  feature  of  the  work  of  the  new  profession. 
While  Mr.  J.  J.  Hill,  Mr.  Pinchot  and  others  have  been  preaching  the 
conservation  of  our  natural  resources,  Mr.  Brandeis  and  his  colleagues 
have  been  preaching  the  conservation  of  labor  and  time.  Now,  why  not  go 
a  step  further  and  teach  the  conservation  of  wealth  and  the  great  funda- 
mental principles  of  applied  economics,  upon  which  the  success  of  all  so 
greatly  depends? 

When  I  say  this,  I  speak  most  seriously ;  for  our  nation's  progress  dur- 
ing the  next  twenty  years  must  be  due  to  something  else  than  our  natural 
resources.  Up  to  the  present  time,  our  country  has  grown  in  spite  of  itself, 
because  of  what  its  great  mines,  forests  and  fertile  fields  have  produced. 
Moreover,  our  products  have  had  little  competition  and  our  country  has 
ihus  far  been  the  only  "land  of  the  free  and  the  home  of  the  brave" — the 
only  land  to  which  the  enterprising  and  industrious  European  could  go  to 
win  his  way.  Now,  times  are  changed ;  Argentine  and  the  South  American 
countries  are  becoming  great  competitors  of  ours;  Japan,  with  the  great 
Chinese  empire,  is  bound  to  cause  us  much  thought,  while  Russia,  Siberia, 
Africa  and  other  countries  are  beginning  to  present  great  opportunities. 
This  is  likely  to  result  in  the  reduction  of  immigration,  foreign  trade,  and 
many  other  factors  upon  which  the  success  of  our  country  has  been  so 
dependent. 


144          THE    NEW   PROFESSION    OF    ECONOMIC    ENGINEERING 

Therefore,  more  than  ever  before  this  country  will  need,  during  the 
next  decade,  men  thoroughly  trained  in  the  fundamental  principles  of 
economics ;  men  who  will  not  permit  this  country  to  be  handicapped  either 
by  reckless  periods  of  prosperity  or  by  distressing  periods  of  depression; 
men  who  will  eliminate  unhealthy  booms  and  ruinous  panics;  men  who, 
graduating  as  economic  engineers  in  this  new  profession,  will  understand 
the  scientific  management,  direction  and  development  of  our  great  indus- 
trial, transportation  and  banking  enterprises. 


INSTRUCTION  IN  FINANCE,  ACCOUNTING  AND  BUSINESS 
ADMINISTRATION  IN  SCHOOLS  OF  TECHNOLOGY. 

HARVEY  S.  CHASE,  '83, 
Certified  Public  Accountant,  Boston,  Mass. 

FEELING,  as  I  do,  that  instruction  in  accountancy  and  finance  should 
be  considered  an  exceedingly  important  part  of  the  technical  education  of 
every  engineer,  I  am  glad  of  the  opportunity,  which  you  have  extended  to 
me,  to  emphasize  this  view  in  a  brief  address  before  this  Congress. 

In  order  that  the  views  of  others  may  be  added  to  my  own,  I  quote 
from  letters  received  recently  from  the  presidents  of  various  technical  insti- 
tutions, as  follows : 

One  president  writes:  "It  is  my  opinion  that  'business'  ought  to 
enter  very  largely  into  the  education  of  the  young  engineer.  In  this  coun- 
try it  is  of  more  importance  to  him  than  the  modern  languages.  In  fact, 
I  should  put  it  on  a  par  with  English.  Assuming  that  the  young  man 
devotes  four  years  to  his  technical  course,  I  would  have  at  least  two  hours 
of  each  week  devoted  to  business  subjects.  He  should  begin  with  account- 
ing. By  that  I  mean  plain,  every-day,  horse-sense  bookkeeping.  That  is 
certainly  something  he  ought  to  know.  In  the  second  year  he  should  take 
up  what  we  call  corporation  finance.  In  the  third  year  he  should  study  the 
science  of  business,  ordinarily  called  political  economy.  Very  little  time 
should  be  given  to  fine-spun  theories,  but  he  should  know  the  facts  and 
some  of  the  law  with  regard  to  trade  unions,  strikes,  lockouts,  railroad  rates, 
so-called  trusts,  and  the  tariff.  In  the  fourth  year  he  should  take  up  the 
subject  of  business  organization  and  management.  He  will  then  be  old 
enough  to  understand  and  be  interested  in  what  we  now  call  industrial 
efficiency.  This  is  a  very  hard  subject  to  teach,  for  nobody  knows  very 
much  about  it.  The  young  engineer  certainly  ought  to  know  all  that  any- 
body can  tell  him.  One  of  my  reasons  for  thinking  that  engineers  ought 
to  have  this  instruction  in  business  is  the  fact  that  all  successful  engineers 
of  the  day  are  good  business  men  as  well  as  good  engineers.  In  fact,  I  am 
not  sure  that  most  of  them  do  not  owe  their  success  more  to  their  business 
ability  than  to  their  engineering  ability ." 

Another  president  says:  "With  many  of  us  who  are  engineers  this 

145 


146       INSTRUCTION    IN    FINANCE,  ACCOUNTING    AND    BUSINESS 

question  hardly  admits  of  discussion.  Our  professional  and  business  lives 
have  demonstrated  to  us  practically  and  completely  that  the  engineer  who 
aims  to  be  more  than  a  mere  subordinate  should  be  at  least  acquainted  with 
the  methods  ordinarily  pursued  in  business  life,  and  that  even  to  the  sub- 
ordinate such  a  knowledge  is  of  importance. 

"But  on  the  other  hand,  there  are  many  who  will  tell  you  that  the 
engineer  is  above  the  necessity  for  such  an  addition  to  his  curriculum; 
that  he  can,  if  necessary,  hire  his  bookkeeper  and  his  business  manager  for 
a  moderate  compensation,  and  much  to  the  same  effect.  My  experience 
goes  to  show  that  the  men  who  thus  argue  are  very  apt  to  wind  up  by  being 
hired  at  a  moderate  salary  by  the  business  manager." 

A  third  president,  after  referring  to  the  courses  in  applied  economics, 
financial  administration,  and  elements  of  business  law,  states :  "  We  think 
so  well  of  these  courses  that  we  would  gladly  add  others  similar  to  them 
and  devote  more  time  to  the  work  of  each  if  it  were  possible  to  obtain  the 
time  for  them  from  an  already  overcrowded  curriculum." 

A  fourth  quotation  is  the  following :  "  We  give  no  regular  course  here 
of  instruction  in  commerce,  accounts  and  finance.  We  have  lectures  on  the 
law  of  contracts,  and  in  their  theses  the  students  have  to  consider  carefully 
all  questions  of  cost.  At  times  during  the  courses  various  professors  have 
to  take  up  questions  of  costs  and  accounts  to  a  limited  extent,  but  we  give 
no  such  regular  course.  I  appreciate  the  value  of  such  a  course.  The  main 
reason  why  it  is  not  given  is  because  our  students  are  overcrowded  with 
\vork.  The  limit  of  work  is  given  them  for  a  four  years'  course,  and  it  seems 
to  us  at  times  almost  as  if  we  would  have  to  make  it  a  five  years'  course." 

A  fifth  says:  "The  Department  of  Business  Administration  offers 
three  special  courses  to  the  engineers  in  economic  subjects,  two  in  economics 
and  one  in  accountancy.  These  courses  are  open  only  to  engineers,  and 
every  engineer  is  required  to  take  the  economic  courses,  while  that  in 
accountancy  was  opened  to  them  as  an  elective  for  the  first  time  last  year. 
This  course  is  increasing  rapidly.  All  the  other  courses  in  the  Business 
Administration  School  are  open  to  the  engineers  if  they  fulfil  the  neces- 
sary prerequisites." 

The  head  of  the  economics  department  of  one  of  the  large  universities 
writes:  "Civil  engineering  students  here  are  required  to  take  elementary 
economics  three  hours  a  week  throughout  the  junior  year;  mechanical 
engineering  students  are  required  to  take  it  two  hours  a  week  throughout 
the  senior  year.  In,  addition,  certain  students  are  required  to  take  a  course 
in  industrial  organization  two  hours  a  week'  in  the  senior  year.  A  diligent 
engineering  student  is  enabled  to  elect  in  the  Arts  College  one  or  two  more 


HAEVEY    S.    CHASE,    '83  147 

advanced  courses  in  economics,  finance,  commerce,  etc.,  if  he  wishes  to,  and 
engineering  students  appear  to  be  doing  this  in  increasing  numbers.  Stu- 
dents planning  to  take  electives  in  economics  frequently  are  permitted  to 
take  their  elementary  course  earlier  than  the  year  in  which  it  is  regularly 
scheduled." 

Instruction  in '  these  subjects  is  not  universal,  however,  as  is  shown 
by  the  following  quotation :  "  I  am  sending  you  under  separate  cover  our 
bulletin  of  courses  in  business  administration  and  in  social  service. 
However,  this  work  is  offered  as  a  part  of  the  work  of  the  Arts  College  and 
not  in  the  Engineering  College  or  other  college  of  the  university.  As  a  mat- 
ter of  fact,  no  work  is  offered  in  the  College  of  Engineering  here  in  com- 
merce, .accounts  and  in  finance." 

Narrowing  the  question  to  institutes  of  technology  and  to  the  gradu- 
ates of  engineering  courses,  I  desire  to  reach  some  reasonable  conclusion, 
if  possible,  which  would  bear  practically  upon  the  quantity  and  quality  of 
the  instruction  in  such  subjects  which  is  fundamentally  necessary  for  an 
engineer  to  receive. 

If  I  may  draw  from  my  own  experience  I  should  say  that,  as  a  rule, 
graduates  of  engineering  courses  at  the  Institute  of  Technology  and  else- 
\vhere  have  been  in  the  past  wofully  lacking  in  a  working  comprehension  of 
the  fundamental  principles  of  accounts,  business  practice,  commercial  law 
find  business  administration.  I  have  been  surprised  frequently  to  find  how 
simple  a  proposition  in  accounts — in  ordinary  bookkeeping,  even — has 
proved  to  be  an  unanswerable  problem  to  an  engineering  graduate  whose 
grasp  of  the  principles  of  higher  mathematics  may  have  been  above  tho 
average.  Doubtless  much  of  the  failure  in  the  past  to  teach  these  important 
branches  of  knowledge  has  been  due  to  a  certain  scorn  of  "bookkeeping" 
and  "mere  bookkeepers,"  which  unfortunately  prevailed  in  many  quarters 
up  to  quite  recent  times,  and  may  still  prevail  in  schools  whose  inertia  has 
yet  to  be  overcome. 

I  remember  one  of  the  rude,  awakening  shocks  received  after  I  gradu- 
ated and  had  begun  real  work  in  a  big  cotton  mill  with  my  overalls  and 
jumpers  on,  with  an  eleven-hour  schedule  and  a  pay  of  sixty  cents  per  day. 
The  agent,  a  bluff  and  gruff  practical  man,  announced  at  our  first  interview 
that  he  thought  little  of  technology  men  because  they  "  knew  so  much  that 
wasn't  so  !  "  He  preferred  a  Harvard  graduate  "  because  such  a  man  didn't 
know  anything,  and  he  knew  he  didn't  know  anything." 

We  must  acknowledge,  doubtless,  that  family  influence  has  played  a 
great  part  in  the  more  rapid  advancement  to  managing  positions  of  the 
men  "who  knew  they  didn't  know  anything."  But,  starting  from  that 


148       INSTRUCTION   IN    FINANCE,  ACCOUNTING   AND    BUSINESS 

platform,  they  have  had  an  equally  clear  field  with  the  Tech.  graduate 
along  the  line  of  gaining  a  practical  education  in  finance,  commerce  and 
accounts ;  and  in  general  they  have  shown  an  aptitude  and  an  appreciation 
of  the  importance  of  such  training  which  has  been  lacking  in  the  Tech. 
man. 

All  this  must  be  changed — is  being  changed  under  our  eyes  now.  ISTo 
engineer  should  be  given  a  diploma,  in  my  opinion,  until  he  has  demon- 
strated his  knowledge  of  the  ordinary  rules  and  laws  of  business  and  until 
he  has  mastered,  to  some  extent  at  least,  the  principles  of  business  adminis- 
tration, scientific  management,  cost  accounting,  and  other  elements  which 
are  "  bookkeeping  "  requirements  principally,  it  is  true,  but  which  are  inter- 
locked with  nearly  all  engineering  problems  in  these  days.  The  engineer 
who  cannot  analyze  a  financial  statement,  cannot  interpret  a  balance  sheet, 
cannot  distinguish  at  first  glance  between  an  asset  and  a  receipt,  or 
between  an  income  account  and  a  liability  account,  ought  not  to  be  allowed 
to  risk  the  disgrace  to  himself  and  to  his  Alma  Mater  which  is  bound  to 
come  whenever  such  ignorance  is  discovered  by  his  employers  or  his  clients. 


TECHNICAL  EDUCATION  AND  THE  CONTRACTING 
ENGINEER. 

By  SUMNER  B.  ELY,  '92, 
Vice-President,  Chester  B.  Albree  Iron  Works  Co.,  Allegheny,  Pa. 

WE  understand  by  the  so-called  contracting  engineer  the  man  who 
closes  a  contract — in  other  words,  a  salesman  of  an  engineering  or  manu- 
facturing firm.  He  is  sometimes  called  a  commercial  engineer,  but  the 
term  "  contracting  engineer  "  seems  to  be  the  better  and  more  common  one. 
"We  all  appreciate  the  importance  and  great  value  of  a  contracting  engineer ; 
for  he  can  often  make  or  break  a  company.  We  also  appreciate  how  diffi- 
cult it  is  to  find  a  competent  man  of  this  kind.  The  larger  companies 
understand  these  facts;  for  most  of  them  are  now  training  up  their  own 
contracting  engineers,  choosing  men  who  have  a  technical  education  and  a 
special  aptitude  for  this  class  of  work. 

The  question  then  is,  What  is  the  advantage  of  a  technical  education 
to  the  contracting  engineer?  If  we  were  to  say  absolutely  that  the  con- 
tracting engineer  must  have  a  technical  education,  we  should  be  going 
against  the  facts.  We  all  of  us  know  technical  salesmen  who  are  anything 
but  technical,  and  yet  are  often  of  great  value  to  their  firms.  It  goes  with- 
out saying  that  a  certain  amount  of  technical  knowledge  is  necessary,  and 
that  it  is  becoming  more  and  more  so  as  the  business  world  develops  and 
has  in  it  an  increased  number  of  technically-trained  purchasers . 

The  popular  idea  is  that  there  exist  two  extreme  types  of  contracting 
engineers.  One  type  goes  to  the  purchaser  with  a  remark  somewhat  of  this 
nature:  "  Here  are  the  specifications  of  the  engine  you  want;  you  know  the 
company  is  all  right,  and  so  are  the  specifications.  Now,  come  out  and  have 
lunch  with  me."  The  other  type  is  a  man  who  has  little  address  and  man- 
ners, but  who  really  knows  the  article  he  is  trying  to  sell,  and  also  its 
general  engineering  field  of  application.  Both  of  these  men  do  good  work; 
but  it  seems  clear  that  the  ideal  contracting  engineer  would  be  the  man  who 
combined  the  quality  of  a  pleasing  personality  with  technical  knowledge. 

This  question  of  personality  seems  to  be  largely  one  of  understanding 
temperament  and  adapting  oneself  to  the  temperament  of  the  purchaser. 
Consider  a  purchaser  of  slight  build,  with  tapering  face  and  hands,  quick 

149 


150        TECHNICAL    EDUCATION   AND    CONTRACTING    ENGINEEB 

in  all  his  movements  and  alert  in  whatever  he  does.  He  has  a  nervous  tem- 
perament, and  his  mental  characteristics  are  much  like  his  physical.  He  is 
quick  to  grasp  ideas,  reaching  his  decisions  at  once,  impatient  of  details, 
and  essentially  a  rapid  thinker.  The  contracting  engineer  before  a  man  of 
this  type  cannot  enter  on  long  explanations  and  petty  details.  He  must 
adapt  himself  to  this  kind  of  mind,  expect  to  be  interrupted  before  he  has 
fnished  his  sentences,  and  have  his  own  ideas  explained  for  him.  The 
nervous  temperament  feels  itself  flattered  if  it  sees  a.head  of  the  explana- 
tion and  jumps  at  the  conclusion.  Then  consider  the  man  with  the  square 
face,  and  the  thickset  body,  slow  and  deliberate  in  action  and  thought.  He 
will  listen  and  follow  through  the  details  of  an  extended  argument  and  his 
conclusions  are  slowly  drawn,  often  more  correctly  than  those  of  the  jerky 
thinker  of  the  nervous  type.  There  are  other  temperaments,  such  as  the 
sanguine  man,  ruled  by  his  emotions  and  feelings,  and  the  man  controlled 
by  his  fancy  and  imagination.  The  better  these  temperaments  are  under- 
stood, the  better  for  the  contracting  engineer.  This  understanding  is  gen- 
erally intuitive;  for  the  average  salesman  would  be  unable  to  analyze  the 
different  conditions  that  make  up  men.  But,  however  they  know  it, 
whether  by  reason  or  so-called  intuition,  they  know  what  will  please  or 
offend  and  how  far  and  when  to  urge  their  claims.  They  seem  uncon- 
sciously to  understand  the  type  and  style  of  man  before  them. 

We  may  call  this  personality  or  what  we  will;  after  all,  it  is  merely 
knowledge  of  human  nature,  and  however  necessary  technical  information 
is  in  the  contracting  engineer,  at  least  50  per  cent  of  his  knowledge  will 
always  have  to  be  a  knowledge  of  human  nature.  So,  aside  from  technical 
knowledge,  the  original  question  might  have  been,  "  What  is  the  effect  of 
a  scientific  training  on  the  personality  of  the  contracting  engineer  ?  " 

All  men  are  not  born  equal;  but  if  two  men  were  equal,  the  one  with 
the  education  would  be  the  better.  And  not  from  what  he  knows  so  much 
as  from  its  cultural  effect  upon  his  personality.  Why  should  not  the  cul- 
tural effect  of  the  scientific  training  be  equal  or  better  than  a  classical  ?  It 
emphasizes  accuracy  and  care,  and  develops  a  tendency  to  make  one  deal 
honestly  with  whatever  presents  itself.  We  do  not  have  in  this  country 
schools  of  the  English  type,  where  "  manners  maketh  the  man,"  and  where 
boys  are  trained  in  this  sense.  But  even  to  one  so  trained  and  educated,  a 
scientific  or  technical  training  afterwards  cannot  but  be  of  great  benefit. 

There  is  no  question  but  that  the  student  needs  the  lessons  on  human 
nature  which  literature,  biology,  history  contain,  and  which  our  technical 
schools  are  appreciating  more  and  more  by  introducing  a  larger  number 
of  so-called  general  subjects  among  their  technical  studies. 


SUMNEE    B.    ELY,    '92  151 

It  has  been  the  writer's  experience  in  dealing  with  men  during  the 
last  ten  or  twelve  years  that  the  technical  graduate  was  generally  the  most 
satisfactory.  He  seems  to  feel  himself  merely  a  small  part  of  the  world's 
make-up,  and  looks  at  life  from  a  "  nature  "  point  of  view ;  in  other  words, 
he  does  not  expect  as  much  as  the  classical  graduate,  nor  hope  to  reach  a 
more  responsible  position  without  work  and  time.  The  conclusion  seems  to 
be  borne  out  by  general  experience  all  over  the  country  that  a  scientifically 
trained  mind  in  connection  with  a  good  knowledge  of  human  nature  pro- 
duces the  best  contracting  engineer. 


THE     RESPONSIBILITY     OF     MANUFACTURERS     FOR     THE 
TRAINING  OF  SKILLED  MECHANICS  AND  SHOP-FOREMEN. 

By  ARTHUR  L.  WILLISTON,  '89, 
Principal  of  the  Wentworth  Institute,  Boston,  Mass. 

THE  need  for  an  efficient  way  of  obtaining  more  skilled  mechanics 
and  competent  shop-foremen  is  everywhere  apparent.  For  a  long  time,  in 
America,  we  have  taken  pride  in  the  idea  that  we  were  a  practical  people, 
but  we  have  recently  been  brought  to  realize  that  in  several  most  important 
particulars  we  have  been  surprisingly  short-sighted;  we  have  been  wasteful 
of  forests,  have  exhausted  the  natural  fertility  of  the  soil,  and  have  drawn 
upon  the  mineral  resources  of  the  country  with  little  heed  for  the  future; 
and  now  we  are  beginning  to  understand  that  we  have  been  more  wasteful 
of  the  undeveloped  power  in  human  beings  .even,  than  in  the  use  of  any 
other  natural  resource. 

The  National  Importance  of  the  Efficient  Use  of  People. — Professor 
T.  N.  Carver,  of  Harvard  University,  is  authority  for  the  statement  that 
"'  Communities  have  grown  rich  in  the  midst  of  poor  geographical  surround- 
ings by  reason  of  the  fact  that  they  have  developed  the  latent  energy  of 
their  people  and  applied  this  energy  intelligently.  .  .  .  Other  nations  have 
grown  poor  in  the  midst  of  rich  geographical  resources  by  reason  of  the 
simple  fact  that  they  have  wasted  their  people,  not  simply  in  war,  but  by 
allowing  their  latent  energy  to  remain  undeveloped  or  to  be  unintelli- 
gently  utilized,"  and  "  Speaking  generally,  one  is  safe  in  saying  that  no 
nation  ever  did  prosper  as  compared  with  other  nations  except  by  reason  of 
the  superior,  conservation  of  the  human  factor  in  production." 

In  order  to  fully  appreciate  the  meaning  of  this  statement,  one  has 
only  to  consider  the  number  of  persons  in  industry  that  are  doing  things 
badly  who  might  have  been  trained  to  do  them  well ;  the  number  of  persons 
that  are  doing  things  reluctantly  and  under  compulsion  who  might  have 
been  trained  to  do  them  with  interest  and  ambition;  and  the  number  of 
persons  that  are  doing  low-grade  work  who  might  have  been  taught  to  do 
other  things  that  are  more  worth  while.  That  tremendous  improvement  is 
possible  in  all  of  these  directions  has  been  abundantly  shown  by  the  results 
of  all  the  experiments  that  have  been  made  in  the  endeavor  to  find  out 

152 


ARTHUR   L.    WILLISTON,    '89  153 

accurately  what  kind  of  work  persons  could  do  best,  and  then  to  teach  them 
how  to  do  it  in  the  best  way. 

The  Effects  of  the  Growth  of  Distant.  Competition. — Manufacturers 
have  directed  attention  too  exclusively  to  the  solution  of  mechanical  prob- 
lems. They  are  forced  to  adopt  improvements  in  processes  and  in  machin- 
ery by  the  rivalry  of  their  neighbors ;  but  in  the  past,  when  competition  was 
largely  local,  they  have  been  able  to  regard  the  relative  degree  of  efficiency 
of  workmen  in  their  factories  as  a  matter  of  small  concern,  because  each 
factory  has  been  drawing  its  men  from  a  common  market,  and  no  firm 
could  grow  into  a  position  of  advantage  over  the  others. 

During  the  last  ten  or  fifteen  years,  however,  there  has  been  a  sur- 
prising change  in  the  relative  importance  of  local  and  distant  competition. 
To-day,  the  competition  that  endangers  the  greatest  proportion  of  manu- 
facturing business  is  no  longer  local,  but  comes  from  widely  separated  sec- 
tions of  the  United  States,  or  from  foreign  countries.  For  example,  in  the 
cotton  industry  the  competition  most  feared  by  a  mill  in  Fall  River  or  New 
Bedford  is  not  from  the  mills  near  home,  but  from  those  in  the  Southern 
states;  similarly,  that  most  dangerous  to  the  machine-tool  industries  of 
New  England  is  likely  to  come  from  the  states  in  the  Middle  West,  and  that 
most  seriously  affecting  the  lithographic  trades  from  Germany. 

Efficient  Skilled  Workmen  More  Needed  than  Industrial  Leaders. — 
As  a  consequence,  we  now  find  that  the  standard  of  average  intelligence  and 
efficiency  of  the  rank  and  file  of  skilled  workers  has  grown  to  be  the  most 
important  factor  in  the  struggle  for  the  survival  of  the  fittest  in  most  manu- 
facturing industries. 

Leaders  of  marked  ability  or  genius,  of  course,  are  essential  for 
industrial  development,  but  no  one  community  or  nation  can  hope  to  monop- 
olize the  services  of  such  men.  They  are  readily  attracted  to  the  place  where 
they  are  most  wanted,  and  the  community  which  produces  them  has  no 
very  great  advantage  over  others  that  need  them  equally.  This  institution 
whose  foundation  we  are  gathered  here  to  commemorate,  has  been  develop- 
ing men  of  this  type  for  nearly  half  a  century,  but  Massachusetts  has  not 
been  able  to  retain  more  than  a  fair  proportion  of  them;  they  have  been 
called  to  all  parts  of  the  civilized  world,  wherever  there  has  been  work  for 
them  to  do. 

Ideas,  too,  travel  with  great  facility;  new  designs,  new  methods  and 
new  processes  are  promptly  copied  by  distant  competitors;  improved 
machinery  is  readily  purchased  and  imported;  unskilled  labor  is  always 
available  in  abundance.  Of  all  the  factors  controlling  success  in  modern 
industry,  the  only  one  which  is  not  readily  transplanted  and  adopted — the 


154     TRAINING    OF    SKILLED    MECHANICS    AND    SHOP-FOREMEN 

one  which  is  a  permanent  asset  of  the  locality  that  produces  it — is  the 
intelligence  and  ability  of  the  skilled  workers. 

A  short  time  ago  I  was  visiting  a  new  and  very  large  manufacturing 
plant  in  company  with  one  of  the  distinguished  ex-presidents  of  the 
American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers.  We  had  been  through  the 
works  and  had  noted  the  great  intelligence  used  in  planning  the  buildings, 
the  skill  in  designing  and  arranging  the  equipment,  and  the  labor-saving 
processes  employed.  As  we  were  leaving,  he  remarked  to  me,  "  Money  will 
purchase  a  magnificent  equipment,  but  time  only  can  create  an  efficient 
organization."  The  idea  that  I  think  he  wished  to  convey  was,  that  capital, 
industrial  leadership,  the  best  methods  of  manufacture,  the  latest  improve- 
ments in  equipment,  and  an  abundance  of  manual  labor  are  all  free  and 
ready  to  go  into  any  locality  where  they  are  required,  but  that  competent 
mechanics,  foremen  and  superintendents  can  be  attracted  only  very  slowly, 
and,  for  the  most  part,  must  be  home-grown  and  home-trained. 

The  Old  Apprentice  System  has  Become  Ineffective. — How  can  such 
men  be  home-grown  and  trained  in  sufficient  numbers?  This  question  is 
becoming  of  vital  moment  to  many  manufacturers.  As  a  matter  of  business 
policy  they  have  commenced  to  seriously  consider  what  they  could  do  to  help 
toward  its  rapid  solution.  The  old  plan  of  apprenticeship  on  which  they 
had  formerly  relied  answered  its  purpose  fairly  well  when  conscientiously 
and  consistently  carried  out.  Under  present-day  conditions  of  industry, 
however,  it  has  altogether  ceased  to  produce  all-round  mechanics,  and  as  a 
system  of  training  has  either  disappeared  or  become  ineffective.  Increased 
specialization  in  factories  has  made  it  impossible  for  a  boy  to  get  the  variety 
of  work  from  day  to  day  and  week  to  week  that  is  necessary  for  his  develop- 
ment. Increased  size  of  manufacturing  plants  has  made  impossible  the  per- 
sonal relationship  between  boy  and  master-mechanic  which  is  essential  for 
teaching ;  but  more  than  this,  the  introduction  of  applied  science  into  indus- 
try and  the  application  of  new  inventions  have  increased  the  requirements 
so  greatly  that  the  old  shop  methods  of  teaching  are  no  longer  applicable. 
To-day,  a  young  man  should  be  taught  the  principles  on  which  his  work 
depends,  as  well  as  mechanical  operations :  he  should  be  made  to  understand 
the  why  as  well  as  the  how  of  practical  work,  or  he  cannot  perform  new  proc- 
esses when  they  are  required,  nor  adapt  himself  to  new  methods  as  they  are 
introduced.  The  situation  has  grown  so  complicated  that  the  more  system- 
atic methods  of  true  education  are  required.  As  a  consequence,  a  consider- 
able number  of  large  employers  have  already  begun  to  turn  to  the  trade 
school  in  one  or  more  of  its  various  forms  for  aid,  where  their  own  systems 
have  broken  down.  Some  have  established  trade  schools  in  their  own  facto- 


AKTHUR    L.    WILLISTON,    '89  155 

ries.  Others  have  urged  the  cities  in  which  they  are  located  to  start  such 
schools  in  cooperation  with  them. 

Types  of  Trade  Schools. — The  most  important  kinds  of  trade  schools 
that  have  so  far  been  developed  may  be  denned  as  the  corporation  school,  the 
half-time  school,  the  day  continuation  school,  the  evening  continuation 
school,  and  the  full-time  day  trade  school.  Each  of  these  different  types  has 
its  advantages  and  appropriate  places  of  application;  and  each  has  certain 
necessary  limitations  which  make  it  impossible  of  universal  usefulness. 
Briefly,  they  may  be  described  as  follows : 

Corporation  Schools — or  apprenticeship  schools  as  they  are  sometimes 
called — have  been  established  by  a  number  of  large  manufacturing  and 
transportation  companies  in  their  own  works.  As  examples,  the  schools  of 
the  General  Electric  Company  at  Lynn  and  Schenectady,  and  of  the  New 
York  Central  Eailroad  Company,  the  American  Locomotive  Company,  and 
the  Solvay  Process  Company,  may  be  cited.  These  schools  are  supported 
and  operated  by  the  companies,  and  the  boys  of  the  proper  ages  are  required 
to  attend,  receiving  as  a  rule,  full  pay  while  they  are  doing  so.  The  obvious 
advantages  of  schools  of  this  type  are :  the  persons  who  attend  them  are  only 
the  boys  in  the  industry;  the  work  is  done  at  a  time  of  day  when  the  boys 
are  fresh;  the  atmosphere  of  the  schools  is  certain  to  be  always  practical; 
and  the  instruction  may  be  adapted  with  great  nicety  to  the  work  of  the  pro- 
ductive departments.  The  limitations  of  this  plan  are :  that,  of  course,  only 
very  large  corporations  employ  boys  enough  of  a  given  age  in  a  particular 
line  of  work  to  make  it  worth  while  to  establish  a  special  school  and  pay  for 
the  high-priced  teachers  that  are  needed  to  plan  and  carry  out  good  educa- 
tional work ;  second,  the  time  that  can  be  spared  from  productive  work  is  apt 
to  be  too  short  for  the  accomplishment  of  the  best  results;  and  third,  the 
expense  of  the  plan,  even  though  experience  shows  that  results  fully  justify 
it,  is  great  enough  to  deter  many  companies  from  undertaking  it. 

Half-time  Schools,  similar  to  those  in  Beverly,  Fitchburg  and  Cincin- 
nati, have  been  tried  with  excellent  results.  In  these,  two  groups  of  boys 
alternate,  each  group  spending  one  week  in  school  and  the  next  week  in 
productive  work  in  the  shop.  This  plan  has  the  advantage  of  allowing  a  gen- 
erous proportion  of  time  for  educational  work.  It  can  attract  boys  employed 
in  small  shops  and  factories  as  well  as  by  large  corporations.  The  expense 
of  the  teaching  is  as  a  rule  borne  by  the  public-school  system  or  the  private 
institution  giving  the  instruction,  and  the  boys  do  not  receive  pay  for  the 
time  that -they,  are  in  school.  The  possible  objections  to  this  plan  are  the 
difficulty  of  always  securing  and  maintaining  the  effective  cooperation 
between  the  employers  and  the  teachers;  the  fact  that  many  boys  will  be 


156     TRAINING    OF    SKILLED    MECHANICS    AND    SHOP-FOKEMEN 

debarred  from  attending  on  account  of  the  loss  in  wages  while  in  school; 
and,  also,  the  great  expense  to  communities  if  the  plan  were  to  be  carried  out 
effectively  on  any  very  large  scale. 

Day  Continuation  Schools  are  beginning  to  be  tried  in  a  number  of 
cities.  Employers  excuse  their  boys  for  a  limited  number  of  hours  per  week, 
with  full  pay,  in  order  that  they  may  attend  special  classes  arranged  for 
them  in  connection  with  their  occupations.  This  plan  has  greater  possi- 
bility of  universal  application  than  any  other  that  has  been  thus  far  devised, 
as  the  burden  of  expense  upon  the  employer,  the  boy,  and  the  community  are 
all  comparatively  slight.  The  small  number  of  hours  per  week  that  can  be 
devoted  to  the  school  work,  the  difficulty  of  getting  the  needed  cooperation 
with  a  very  large  number  of  employers,  and  the  problem  of  keeping  the 
school  work  sufficiently  closely  related  to  the  productive  work  of  the  boys  in 
their  several  callings,  are  the  objections  to  this  plan. 

Evening  Continuation  Schools  have  been  in  operation  longer  and  are 
more  numerous  than  any  of  the  types  that  have  been  referred  to  previously, 
and,  for  a  long  time,  they  will  probably  continue  to  be  the  best  way  of  help- 
ing a  very  large  number  of  persons;  but  obviously  only  the  young  men  of 
exceptional  perseverance  and  physical  stamina  can  regularly  attend  evening 
sessions  after  having  done  an  arduous  day's  labor  and  still  profit  by  the 
instruction  that  he  receives.  Experience  has  shown  that  the  evening 
schools,  probably  on  this  account,  fail  to  reach  the  average  boy  between 
fourteen  and  eighteen  years  of  age.  For  young  men  having  the  necessary 
ambition  and  bodily  vigor,  however,  they  offer,  at  very  little  expense  and  at 
a  time  not  otherwise  occupied,  an  opportunity  for  education  and  an  aid  to 
advancement  which  has  proven  of  inestimable  value  to  thousands. 

Full-time  Day  Trade  /Schools  equipped  with  all  the  necessary  tools  and 
appliances  for  thoroughly  practical  work  and  manned  by  efficient  teachers, 
offer  an  ideal  opportunity  for  teaching  a  trade  and  cultivating  skill,  intelli- 
gence and  the  spirit  of  devotion  to  work.  The  boy's  full  time  can  be 
devoted  to  studying  principles  and  conditions  and  to  applying  in  practical 
ways  all  that  he  has  learned.  He  is  not  at  any  time  serving  two  masters,  and 
his  whole  interest  and  energy  may  be  concentrated  in  the  most  effective  way 
on  those  things  that  most  help  toward  his  greatest  possible  development. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  possibility  of  getting  any  large  proportion  of  the 
boys  who  are  to  enter  any  given  trade  or  calling  to  make  the  necessary 
sacrifice  of  earning  power  in  order  to  attend  a  day  school,  presents  a  serious 
problem.  No  boy  of  the  type  of  those  who  enter  mechanical  trades  for 
a  livelihood  can  attend  a  long  course,  no  matter  how  great  he  may  consider 
the  advantages ;  and  only  those  who  are  more  persevering  than  the  average, 


ARTHUR   L.    WILLISTON,    '89 

or  who  are  especially  favored,  can  attend  a  short  course.  The  day  trade 
school,  therefore,  can  best  reach  those  of  exceptional  ambition  who  desire  to 
become  superior  workmen,  foremen,  etc. 

The  Results  of  Trade  School  Instruction. — Eeliable  statistics  showing 
the  exact  value  of  the  training  received  in  a  given  time  in  each  of  the  types 
of  schools  described  are  very  difficult  to  secure  and  necessarily  quite  incom- 
plete, but  enough  facts  are  available  to  demonstrate  beyond  a  reasonable 
doubt  that  efficient  trade  school  instruction  will  give  an  increase  in  earning 
power,  both  to  the  individual  and  for  the  employer,  that  could  not  possibly 
be  obtained  through  practical  experience  alone. 

In  support  of  this  statement  I  will  cite  but  two  instances,  though  many 
others  could  be  mentioned.  Both  of  these  have  come  under  my  own  personal 
observation  and  experience. 

First.  Inquiry  was  made  regarding  all  the  members  of  an  evening 
trade  class  who  were  enrolled  in  a  given  year.  The  course  had  been  in 
operation  for  a  number  of  years  and  there  was  no  reason  to  believe  that  the 
class  chosen  for  investigation  was  not  typical  of  all  the  other  classes  that 
had  preceded  or  followed  it,  both  in  the  same  trade  and  other  trades.  The 
instruction  included  practical  shop-work,  and  related  training  in  the  theory 
of  the  trade.  It  covered  two  years  of  twenty-four  weeks,  and  six  hours  per 
week.  The  total  enrolment  of  the  class  was  forty-nine  young  men,  all  of 
whom,  at  the  time  they  entered  were  working  at  theii  trade  during  the  day 
as  so-called  apprentices  or  helpers,  and  receiving  as  wages  between  $6.00  per 
week  as  a  minimum,  and  $9.00  per  week  as  a  maximum. 

Information  was  secured  regarding  forty  of  these  young  men  five  years 
after  they  entered  the  evening  trade  school.  One  had  died ;  one  had  gone  to 
the  Philippine  Islands,  and  one  other  had  left  the  trade.  Of  the  thirty- 
seven  remaining,  twenty-two  were  rated  as  journeymen  mechanics,  the 
smallest  wages  received  by  any  of  whom  being  $21.00  per  week,  fifteen  others 
had  been  regular  journeymen  but  had  been  promoted  out  of  the  ranks  into 
positions  of  foremen,  master-mechanics,  superintendents,  and  the  like,  and 
were  in  every  instance  receiving  wages  in  excess — in  most  cases  considerably 
in  excess — of  $21.00  per  week.  Thus  in  five  years  from  the  date  that  they 
entered,  thirty-seven  per  cent  of  those  heard  from  had  stepped  up  at  least 
two  rounds  on  the  industrial  ladder. 

Second.  A  similar  investigation  of  the  progress  of  nearly  a  thousand 
graduates  from  day  courses,  two  years  in  length,  intended  to  train  young 
men  for  positions  of  foremanship  grade,  showed  that  67  per  cent  of  all  who 
had  been  at  work  after  graduation  for  five  years  or  more  were  actually  hold- 
ing such  positions,  being  foremen  or  superintendents,  or  in  charge  of  con- 


158     TRAINING    OF    SKILLED    MECHANICS    AND    SHOP-FOREMEN 

struction  departments,  or  having  corresponding  positions  in  manufacturing 
plants  where  they  were  directing  the  work  of  a  considerable  number  of  other 
men.  Of  the  remaining  33  per  cent,  too,  many  were  in  places  directly  in 
line  for  promotion  to  positions  of  the  type  just  described,  and  doubtless 
would  secure  them  in  a  short  time. 

One  year  after  graduation  the  average  wages  received  by  all  were  $15.00 
per  week;  over  20  per  cent  of  the  men,  however,  were  getting  $22.00  per 
week;  while  eight  years  after  graduation  the  average  wages  were  $36.50  per 
week,  and  20  per  cent  were  being  paid  $40.00  per  week  or  over.  This  shows 
an  increase  of  243  per  cent  in  seven  years. 

The  gain  in  efficiency  in  earning  power  is  too  striking,  in  both  of  the 
cases  that  I  have  described,  to  be  attributed  to  accident,  or  to  leave  a 
reasonable  doubt  regarding  the  very  great  value  of  the  sort  of  instruction 
given ;  and  yet  there  was  nothing  in  any  way  remarkable  about  it.  It  could 
easily  be  duplicated  in  any  place  where  the  right  type  of  boys  could  be  per- 
suaded to  sacrifice  present  wages  for  future  advantage. 

The  Economic  Side  of  the  Problem  is  Paramount. — The  young  man 
who  receives  the  instruction,  however,  is  not  the  only  one  who  is  benefited. 
The  gain  to  employers  and  to  the  community  at  large,  from  having  persons 
who  would  otherwise  be  likely  to  remain  unintelligent  and  low-grade  work- 
men transformed  into  highly  efficient  units  in  manufacturing  industries, 
who  can  not  only  perform  their  work  well,  but  who  can  help  in  the  direc- 
tion of  others,  is  too  apparent  to  need  demonstration.  Yet,  in  spite  of  these 
facts,  and  in  spite  of  the  excellence  of  the  instruction,  in  many,  if  not  all,  of 
the  schools  of  the  various  types  described,  the  growth  in  their  enrollment  has 
in  the  great  majority  of  instances  been  disappointingly  small.  At  first 
sight  this  appears  like  an  educational  paradox  difficult  to  explain,  but  on 
closer  examination  it  appears  that  the  problem  is  an  economic  one  to  a  far 
greater  degree  than  it  is  an  educational  one. 

Manufacturers  Should  Tell  Boys  Seeking  Employment  First  to  Become 
Competent. — The  type  of  boys  who  enter  skilled  trades  and  mechanical  oper- 
ations, by  the  time  they  arrive  at  an  age  where  they  can  be  taught  trades  ef- 
fectively, already  have  an  earning  power  which  they  and  their  familes  are 
loath  to  give  up.  As  a  rule  it  would  be  possible  for  them  to  do  this  for  a  year 
or  for  two  years  if  they  were  absolutely  convinced  that  the  return  in  future 
advancement  would  be  sufficient,  but  the  evidence  naturally  has  to  be 
plain  and  convincing.  The  essential  thing,  therefore,  for  the  more  rapid 
growth  of  the  movement  for  the  extension  of  industrial  education  is  more 
effective  methods  for  bringing  before  the  boys  who  are  about  to  enter  indus- 
try sufficiently  convincing  testimony  of  the  value  of  making  themselves 


AETHUE    L.    WILLISTON,     '89  159 

competent  in  their  calling  in  order  to  overcome  their  natural  desire  for  an 
immediate  change. 

There  is  but  one  group  of  persons  in  the  community  who  can  effectively 
do  this.  They  are  the  employers.  I  am  convinced  that  they  are  responsible 
for  a  great  deal  of  the  misinformation  and  many  of  the  wrong  ideas  that 
cause  boys  at  the  present  time  to  decide  questions  of  this  kind  unwisely. 
Their  methods  of  rejecting  applicants  or  of  giving  employment  have  a  more 
far-reaching  influence  than  many  realize.  I  recall  that,  in  one  investigation 
that  I  made,  I  found  that  96  per  cent  of  all  the  pupils  enrolled  in  a  very 
large  evening  class  in  mechanical  drawing  were  there  because  a  compara- 
tively few  employers  had  adopted  the  plan  of  advising  all  young  applicants 
for  positions  in  their  works  to  make  them  more  competent  before  they  ap- 
plied again,  and  had  suggested  an  evening  course  in  mechanical  drawing  as  a 
means  of  doing  so  if  they  could  not  already  read  blue  prints  easily.  If  all 
employers  were  to  carry  out  this  policy  as  effectively  as  the  small  group  that 
I  have  referred  to,  the  difficulties  would  be  largely  overcome. 

The  Manufacturer's  Responsibility. — Colleges  have  had  a  tremendous 
influence  on  preparatory  schools,  both  by  the  character  of  their  entrance  re- 
quirements and  by  the  way  in  which  they  have  given  emphasis  to  them. 

Manufacturers  have  the  same  possibility  to-day  of  exerting  an  influence 
of  tremendous  significance  not  only  to  the  communities  in  which  they  are 
located,  and  to  the  young  people  from  whom  they  will  draw  their  own  work- 
men, but  also  to  themselves  and  to  the  possibilities  of  their  own  future  suc- 
cess, if  they  will  frame  and  make  known  the  requiremnts  for  entrance  to 
their  employ  with  the  care  and  skill  that  they  use  in  selecting  their  machin- 
ery and  marketing  their  products. 

For  a  long  time  they  have  been  crying :  "  Give  us  men  who  can  think  as 
well  as  work ; "  "  Give  us  men  intelligent  enough  to  cooperate  with  us,  in- 
stead of  seeming  to  work  against  us." 

In  answer  to  them,  my  plea  is:  if  they  cannot  afford  to  establish  in 
their  own  works  schools  to  develop  these  men  for  themselves,  let  them,  at 
least,  urge  others  to  start  such  schools,  and  then  cooperate  in  loyal  fashion 
with  all  who  are  willing  to  train  men  for  industry,  by  insisting,  just  as  far 
as  possible,  on  the  possession  by  every  applicant  of  the  desired  qualities  as  a 
condition  of  employment. 

This  problem  is  a  large  one.  It  requires  the  cooperation  of  all  con- 
cerned. The  manufacturer  shares  directly  in  the  benefits  that  may  result, 
and  in  addition,  best  knows  the  needs.  He  also  controls  the  standards  of 
efficiency  and  the  conditions  of  employment.  For  these  reasons,  his  responsi- 
bility for  taking  the  initiative  is  great. 


THE  TRAINING  OF  INDUSTRIAL  FOREMEN. 

By  CHARLES  F.  PARK,  '92, 

Associate  Professor  of  Mechanical  Engineering,  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Tech- 
nology; Director  of  Lowell  Institute  School  for  Industrial  Foremen,  Boston. 

WE  are  beginning  to  feel  that  with,  all  our  efficient  machinery  and 
modern  methods  of  manufacture  the  absence  of  systematic  training  is  plac- 
ing our  industries  in  a  serious  situation,  and  it  has  been  stated  that  "  to-day 
we  are  reaping  the  sorry  harvest  of  neglect."  This  condition  is  not  only  most 
unfortunate  for  the  industries,  but  it  is  also  deplorably  unfortunate  for  the 
workmen. 

What  reason  is  there  to  expect  these  untrained  workmen  will  ever  exer- 
cise any  initiative  or  that  they  can  ever  become  leaders,  even  in  a  small 
way?  How  can  they  ever  progress  even  from  the  smaller  things  to  the 
larger  ones,  or  how  can  they  ever  become  qualified  for  positions  of  responsi- 
bility, such  as  foremen,  superintendents  or  shop  managers.  To  be  sure, 
many  men  have  developed  under  these  conditions ;  but  this  was  not  because 
their  work  gave  them  proper  training,  but  because  they  were  naturally 
superior  men.  My  appeal  in  this  paper  is  for  training  that  will  develop  the 
superior  man ;  but  I  appreciate  that  there  is  also  urgent  need  of  industrial 
training  for  the  great  mass  of  ordinary  workmen. 

The  superior  man  cannot  get  the  desired  training  in  the  shop;  and 
the  lack  of  men  able  to  carry  small  responsibilities  or  to  fill  the  positions  of 
great  responsibility  comes  from  the  lack  of  training  of  the  workmen  them- 
selves, from  whom  we  must  select  the  leaders.  Sound  industrial  education 
has  seemed  to  several  philanthropists  to  be  the  remedy. 

A  number  of  years  ago  Dr.  A.  Lawrence  Lowell,  trustee  of  the  Lowell 
Institute,  foresaw  the  value  of  such  training,  and  in  1903  he  made  a  change 
in  the  work  done  by  the  Lowell  Institute  in  connection  with  the  Institute  of 
Technology.  The  purpose  underlying  this  change,  as  stated  in  an  early 
announcement,  is  as  follows : 

We  have  heard  a  great  deal  of  late  years  of  captains  of  industry ;  but 
the  efficiency  of  the  industrial  art  depends,  in  a  very  large  measure,  and 
probably  to  a  constantly  increasing  extent,  upon  the  capacity  of  its  non- 
commissioned officers, — in  other  words,  upon  the  foremen.  These  men 

160 


CHAELES  F.  PAEK,    >92  161 

receive  the  same  education  to-day  as  the  ordinary  mechanic,  and  it  has  been 
thought  that  it  would  be  a  great  benefit  to  the  community  at  large  if  they 
could  have  some  instruction  in  the  principles  of  applied  science,  so  that  they 
might  understand  more  thoroughly  the  work  they  are  superintending,  and 
be  ready  to  apply  improvements.  It  is  felt,  also,  that  a  better  educated  class 
of  foremen  would  be  a  benefit  to  the  community  socially,  as  an  intermediary 
class  between  the  employer  or  engineer  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  workmen 
on  the  other.  To  attempt,  however,  to  train  young  men  separately  for  the 
position  of  foremen  would  be  under  the  existing  organization  of  labor  an 
impossibility.  The  formen  must  continue,  for  the  present  at  least,  to  be 
promoted  from  among  the  workmen.  In  giving  them  such  an  education  as 
is  desired,  therefore,  it  is  necessary  to  take  men  who  are  already  working  at 
their  trade ;  and  hence  instruction  can  be  given  to  them  only  in  the  evening. 

With  this  object  it  was  decided  to  substitute  for  the  advanced  courses 
hitherto  given  by  the  Lowell  Institute  under  the  auspices  of  the  Institute 
of  Technology,  an  evening  "  School  for  Industrial  Foremen,"  open,  free  of 
charge,  to  young  men  who  are  ambitious  and  well-fitted  to  profit  by  the 
instruction;  the  term  foremen  being  used  in  its  broad  meaning. 

The  school  comprises  two  courses,  one  mechanical  and  the  other  elec- 
trical, each  extending  over  two  years.  The  work  of  the  school  at  the  outset 
was  practically  the  same  as  it  is  to-day. 

The  courses  are  intended  to  bring  the  systematic  study  of  applied 
science  within  the  reach  of  young  men  who  are  following  industrial  pursuits 
and  desire  to  fit  themselves  for  higher  positions,  but  are  unable  to  attend 
courses  during  the  day. 

The  schedule  for  the  first  year  is  the  same  for  both  the  mechanical  and 
the  electrical  courses.  It  includes:  Mathematics,  56  hours;  Physics,  33 
hours;  Electricity,  28  hours;  Mechanism,  34  hours;  Drawing,  40  hours; 
Total,  192  hours. 

The  schedules  for  the  second  year  are  as  follow : 


MECHANICAL    COTJBSE. 

Elements  of  Thermodynamics,  the  Steam  Engine  and  Boilers 38  hours 

Valve   Gears    10      " 

Applied  Mechanics 38 

Elementary   Hydraulics    10 

Testing  Laboratory    (Resistance  of  Materials) 12 

Steam  and  Hydraulic   Laboratory    24 

Mechanism    Design 12 

Elementary  Machine  Design 60 


Total    204  hours 


162  THE    TEAINING    OF    INDUSTEIAL    FOEEMEN 

ELECTRICAL  COTJKSE. 

Elements  of  Thermodynamics,  the  Steam  Engine  and  Boilers 38  hours 

Valve   Gears 10 

Steam    Laboratory 16 

Direct  Current  Machinery   12 

Alternating   Currents 22 

Electric  Distribution    30 

Electrical  Testing    (Laboratory) 24 

Laboratory  of  Dynamo  Electric  Machinery 48 

Total 200  hours 

It  may  be  supposed  that  men  who  are  following  industrial  pursuits  dur- 
ing the  day  are  not  in  a  condition  to  receive  instruction  after  their  day's 
labor,  and  that  the  instruction  under  such  conditions  can  be  of  but  little 
profit;  but  it  can  be  safely  stated  that  such  is  not  the  case. 

It  has  been  also  thought  by  some  persons  that  the  amount  of  work  at- 
tempted in  the  two  years  was  too  large.  To  be  sure,  the  courses  are  severe, 
and  there  are  at  present  not  a  large  number  of  men  who  are  capable  of  fol- 
lowing them ;  but  the  courses  are  not  planned  to  reach  the  greatest  number 
of  men.  They  are  designed  to  give  training  to  that  group  of  picked  men  who 
are  able  to  profit  by  the  instruction  and  who  will  be  able  through  it  to  ad- 
vance to  higher  positons.  For  the  eight  years  of  the  school's  history  about 
as  many  men  have  been  able  to  keep  up  with  the  work  as  the  capacity  of  the 
school  would  admit.  It  is  believed  that  with  the  facilities  at  hand  it  is  of 
greater  value  both  to  the  men  themselves  and  to  the  industrial  community  to 
give  this  higher  standard  of  training  to  a  comparatively  small  number  of 
men, — training  that  will  fit  them  for  positions  of  foremen  and  superin- 
tendents,— rather  than  to  give  training  of  a  lesser  degree  to  a  larger  number 
of  students. 

The  average  yearly  attendance  has  been  about  200  students,  125  in  the 
first-year  class,  and  75  in  the  second-year  class.  189  men  have  been  grad- 
uated, and  30  of  this  number  have  attended  the  school  a  third  year,  graduat- 
ing from  both  the  mechanical  and  the  electrical  courses.  The  men  have 
come  from  about  75  different  towns  within  a  radius  of  20  miles,  and  a  few 
men  from  distant  cities  have  taken  up  work  in  Boston  in  order  to  attend  the 
school. 

A  great  variety  of  occupations  have  been  represented,  but  about  half 
the  number  of  students  are  draftsmen  or  machinists.  The  oldest  man  to  at- 
tend was  54  years  of  age,  and  the  youngest  man  17  years.  The  average  age 
of  the  students  at  the  end  of  the  first  year  course  varied  from  28  to  24.  The 
average  age  of  the  graduates  varied  from  29  to  25  years.  A  few  men  grad- 
uated who  were  older  than  40  years,  and  a  number  have  graduated  at  the  age 
of  19. 


CHARLES  F.  PARK,    '92  163 

The  earlier  schooling  of  the  men  who  have  completed  the  first  year 
course  has  averaged  as  follows : 

College  Graduates 4% 

Attending   College    9% 

High    School   Graduates    46% 

Attending  High   School    25% 

Grammar   School   Graduates    13% 

Attending  Grammar   School    3% 

It  will  be  noticed  that,  although  a  few  more  than  one-half  the  students 
have  been  High  School  graduates,  or  better,  a  considerable  number  of  the 
men  have  entered  the.  school  with  but  very  little  earlier  schooling. 

That  the  school  is  making  the  men  more  efficient  in  their  regular  occu- 
pations, and  qualifying  them  for  advancement  along  the  lines  in  which  they 
are  working,  has  been  demonstrated  by  the  graduates.  Nearly  all  of  these 
men  have  changed  their  occupations  or  have  advanced  to  a  higher  grade  in 
the  same  line  of  work. 

There  are  but  few  exceptions  to  the  rule  that  a  good  workman  gets  bet- 
ter pay  than  a  poor  one.  The  following  facts  have  been  compiled  from 
answers  to  a  circular  letter  received  from  about  three-fourths  of  all  the 


AVERAGE  INCREASE  OF  SALARIES. 

Two  years  after  graduation,  more  than 70% 

Class  graduated  in  May,  1910 72% 

From  three  to  six  years  after  graduation 107% 

A  considerable  number  of  graduates  have  received  increase  of  salaries 
greater  than  200  per  cent,  several  men  have  received  more  than  300  per  cent, 
and  one  man  had  an  increase  of  450  per  cent. 

The  valuable  results  obtained  in  this  school  are  due  in  some  measure  to 
the  fact  that  the  students  have  had  considerable  practical  experience  before 
taking  up  the  work  of  the  school,  but  still  more  to  the  fact  that  they  are  a 
group  of  picked  men,  who  are  considerably  above  the  average,  not  only  in 
natural  alertness  and  intelligence  but  in  earnestness  of  purpose.  They  rep- 
resent a  great  variety  of  occupations,  different  stations  in  life  and  consider- 
able differences  of  age ;  but  this  variety,  although  it  adds  to  the  difficulty  of 
their  instruction,  also  adds  to  its  interest,  in  the  mind  of  an  instructor  of 
the  right  kind.  Experience  has  proved  that  the  personality  of  the  instructor 
is  the  most  important  element  in  his  success,  and  that  only  those  instructors 
who  bring  to  their  work  a  sympathetic  spirit,  enthusiasm  and  keen  devotion 
should  ever  be  selected  to  teach  in  such  schools. 


TECHNICAL  EDUCATION— ITS  FUNCTION  IN  TRAINING  FOR 
THE  TEXTILE  INDUSTRY. 

By  CHARLES  H.  EAMES,  '97, 
Principal  of  the  Lowell  Textile  School,  Lowell,  Mass. 

WITHIN  the  last  fifteen  years  the  branches  of  industrial  and  techno- 
logical education  have  received  more  attention  from  the  educator,  the  manu- 
facturer, and  the  engineer  than  have  any  of  the  older  departments  in  our 
educational  system.  The  practical  man  and  the  theorist,  the  philanthro- 
pist and  the  reformer,  men  of  wisdom  as  well  as  men  with  fads,  have  seen 
in  the  development  of  technical  education  either  unlimited  possibilities  in 
the  uplift  of  their  brother  man,  or  a  necessary  means  of  solving  some  real 
and  complicated  problem  in  the  work-a-day  world. 

The  technological  schools  were  first  organized  to  train  men  for  civil 
engineering,  but  soon  it  became  apparent  that  the  manufacturing  industries 
would  also  profit  by  employing  scientifically  trained  men ;  so  to-day  we  find 
the  largest  part  of  the  alumni  of  the  technological  school  engaged  in  some 
branch  of  manufacturing.  Many  of  the  industries  owe  their  origin  to  the 
product  of  such  schools;  and  there  are  many  cases  where  an  industry  or  con- 
cern has  been  rescued  from  the  class  of  industrial  derelicts  by  a  manager 
who  has  had  scientific  training. 

While  the  success  of  the  iron,  steel,  electrical  and  chemical  industries 
were  soon  seen  to  be  directly  dependent  upon  scientifically  trained  mana- 
gers, the  older  and  more  conservative  textile  industry  long  failed  to  realize 
this,  but  is  fast  coming  to  feel  the  same  need.  Some  years  ago  a  treasurer 
of  a  successful  mill  was  heard  to  remark  with  a  sneer,  "  I  don't  want  any 
technology  graduate  coming  down  here  in  his  patent  leather  shoes  and  tell- 
ing me  how  to  run  a  mill."  The  silent  reply  to  this  man's  belittling  estima- 
tion of  technological  education  may  be  found  by  comparing  the  change  in 
market  values  of  his  mill  stock  and  that  of  a  mill  which  has  made  a  prac- 
tice of  employing  an  increasing  number  of  such  graduates.  The  stock  of 
the  former  has  constantly  fallen,  until  it  is  nearly  one-half  its  original 
value,  while  the  latter  has  constantly  advanced  until  a  share  is  now  worth 
more  than  three  times  its  par  value. 

We  hesitate  to  resort  to  statistics;    for  they  do  not  always  tell  the 

164 


CHAELES    H.    EAMES,    >97  165 

whole  story.  They  are,  nevertheless,  some  measure  to  use  in  estimating  the 
results.  According  to  the  catalogue  of  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Tech- 
nology, there  are  considerably  more  than  a  hundred  of  the  graduates 
engaged  in  the  textile  industry  or  in  a  business  directly  dependent  upon 
the  textile  industry.  This  does,  not  include  those  who  are  mill  engineers, 
or  those  engaged  in  the  design  or  construction, of  steam,  hydraulic  or  elec- 
trical machinery,  whose  products  enter  to  a  great  extent  in  the  success  of 
textile  manufacturing.  Neither  does  this  figure,  of  course,  include  those 
who  are  not  graduates,  but  who  have  found  profitable  positions  in  the  textile 
field  and  are  surely  exerting  their  influence  and  helping  to  make  technical 
training  felt  in  the  industry.  Further  than  this,  in  making  up  our  account, 
we  should  not  forget  to  give  due  credit  to  the  fact  that  the  industry  has 
deemed  technical  education  of  sufficient  importance  to  establish  special 
schools  that  its  particular  requirements  may  be  better  met.  In  one  of  these 
schools  four  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology  men  are  on  the  instruct- 
ing staff,  and  there  have  been  connected  with  the  school  during  its  brief 
existence  nine  instructors  who  received  their  training  at  that  Institute,  as 
well  as  many  graduates  from  at  least  ten  other  technical  institutions — a 
fact  which  serves  as  another  example  of  the  extended  influence  of  scientific 
education  in  the  textile  industry. 

One  could  hardly  conceive  of  the  increase  in  active  cotton  spindles  in 
the  United  States  of  from  2,500,000  in  1860  to  over  29,000,000  in  1910, 
accompanied  by  an  increase  in  the  consumption  of  cotton  from  840,000 
bales  to  4,500,000  during  approximately  the  same  period  without  realizing 
that  engineering  in  the  designing,  constructing  and  operating  of  the  cotton 
mill  must  play  an  ever-increasing  part.  In  comparing  the  size  of  the 
woolen  mill  of  1860  with  the  magnitude  of  the  present-day  worsted  mill 
plant  of  the  type  of  the  Arlington,  the  Ayer  or  the  Wood,  one  has  some 
appreciation  of  the  engineering  problems  involved  and  the  training  which 
has  made  the  successful  solution  possible. 

The  increase  in  production  with  demand  for  improved  efficiency  natur- 
ally places  problems  of  improvements  in  machinery  upon  the  builders,  and 
they  too  have  found  the  need  for  technically  trained  men.  Hardly  a  machine 
shop  building  textile  machinery  can  afford  to  be  without  its  corps  of  expert 
engineers.  The  decrease  in  pounds  of  cotton  consumed  per  active  spindle 
may  be  taken  as  an  indicator  that  finer  grades  of  material  are  being  manu- 
factured in  this  country,  and  this,  too,  will  bring  its  more  complex  problems 
for  the  manufacturer  and  designer  of  machines. 

Within  the  past  few  years  we  have  learned  of  a  new  kind  of  engineer, 
or  rather  of  an  engineer  with  a  new  title,  indicating  again  the  further  sub- 


166  TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    AND    TEXTILE    INDUSTRY 

divison  of  the  field  of  industrial  training.  While  it  was  undoubtedly  one 
of  the  recognized  tenets  in  the  establishment  of  the  technical  school  that 
increased  efficiency  of  operation  would  accrue,  yet  the  field  of  the  economic 
or  efficiency  engineer  was  not  conceived;  but  to-day  manufacturers  are 
realizing  more  and  more  that  dividends  can  be  made  or  lost  in  the  waste, 
not  only  of  materials  but  by  the  improper  direction  of  labor.  The  time 
element  in  production  demands  in  many  cases  more  consideration  than  the 
material,  and  the  efficiency  of  a  human  being  or  process  must  be,  and  is, 
determined  with  almost  as  great  an  accuracy  as  any  mechanical  or  electrical 
device.  The  industries  working  upon  the  smallest  margin  of  profit  find  the 
greatest  need  for  this  engineer.  One  of  the  most  lucrative  fields  for  him 
is  the  textile ;  and  if  careful  examination  were  made,  one  would  find  many 
of  the  successful  mills  quietly  employing  engineers  with  broad  technical 
training  to  study  their  plant,  methods  and  employes  that  the  efficiency  of 
all  of  these  elements  may  be  made  the  highest. 

The  technically  trained  chemist  is  more  and  more  in  demand  by  the 
textile  industry.  His  chief  work  is  to  increase  efficiency  by  insuring  the 
quality  of  the  raw  material,  by  reducing  the  cost  of  manufacture,  and  by 
reducing  waste  or  redeeming  valuable  by-products  from  this  waste.  The 
chemist's  work  has  prevented  the  increasing  amount  of  refuse  from  the  tex- 
tile mills  from  polluting  the  water  supplies  of  nearby  communities.  Thus, 
while  he  may  not  in  such  cases  be  engaged  to  directly  improve  the  industry, 
he  has  made  it  possible  for  business  to  expand  without  being  a  menace  to  any 
particular  locality. 

The  increasing  quantity  of  colored  goods  produced  yearly  in  the 
United  States,  with  the  range  of  dystuffs  made  possible  by  the  development 
of  coal-tar  products,  coupled  with  the  impure  water  supply,  shows  another 
pressing  need  for  the  technically-trained  chemist.  The  day  of  the  "  rule- 
of -thumb  "  dyer,  with  his  stereotyped  receipts  applied  with  little  regard 
for  varying  conditions,  is  fast  receding.  The  dyer  finds  a  knowledge  of  the 
fundamental  laws  of  chemistry  an  absolute  necessity  in  coping  with  the 
perplexing  problems  of  more  intricate  dyestuffs,  complexity  of  material, 
and  contaminated  water  supply. 


THE  SCIENTIFIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  NEGRO. 

By  ROBERT  R.  TAYLOR,  '92, 
Director  of  Industrial  Training,  Tuskegee  Institute. 

IT  is  about  forty-five  years  since  the  negro  was  emancipated  and, 
therefore,  about  forty-five  years  in  which  he  has  had  an  opportunity  to  think 
for  himself.  Prior  to  that  time  he  was  subject  to  the  master  class,  who 
were  responsible  for  providing  work  for  him  and  seeing  that  he  performed 
this  work  according  to  plans  and  methods  definitely  laid  out.  He  engaged 
in  the  mechanical  trades :  there  were  the  colored  contractors  in  carpentry, 
in  brickmasonry  and  in  other  mechanical  lines,  and  the  actual  work  of 
construction  was  done  by  colored  mechanics.  He  built  the  houses,  boats 
and  bridges,  made  the  wagons  and  buggies,  did  ordinary  machine  work. 
In  some  of  the  trades  he  developed  a  certain  degree  of  skill,  showing  a  large 
native  capacity,  but  these  were  few  and  isolated  cases.  Where  fine  work 
was  to  be  done,  demanding  a  high  degree  of  skill,  men  were  brought  from 
other  parts  of  the  country,  or  even  European  countries,  to  do  the  work. 
Whatever  skill  of  hand  may  have  been  developed,  the  negroes  were  an 
unlettered  people,  and  therefore  lacked  the  mental  training  to  back  up  the 
skill  of  hand.  The  negro  was  the  farmer  of  the  South :  he  raised  millions 
of  dollars'  worth  of  cotton,  the  crop  which  has  been  the  basis  of  the  wealth 
of  the  South.  The  fruits  and  vegetables,  the  grains,  were  almost  entirely 
the  results  of  his  labor.  He  did  the  domestic  and  personal  service  work, 
the  work  of  the  barbers,  the  waiters,  the  laundresses,  the  cooks.  The  col- 
ored man  was,  therefore,  almost  entirely  a  laborer,  doing  the  unskilled  work ; 
in  few,  if  any,  cases  did  he  engage  in  the  higher  forms  of  industrial  or  tech- 
nical work.  The  years  following  the  war  were  different  in  many  ways,  but 
the  results  of  the  training  of  years  could  not  be  changed  overnight,  and 
with  them,  as  a  whole,  there  was  still  the  same  feeling  of  dependence  for 
the  guiding,  directing  spirit  of  those  who  had  done  this  so  long.  There 
was  another  element  which  now  entered  into  the  negro's  life.  The  relation 
which  had  existed  prior  to  the  war  had  been  one  of  laborer  and  director. 
The  director  in  the  eyes  of  the  laborer  was  a  man  of  leisure,  one  who  had 
led  a  life  of  ease  and  plenty  and  happiness.  It  is  not  strange  that,  with, 
changed  conditions,  with  a  chance  to  choose  a  career,  he  should  turn  to  the 

167 


168  THE    SCIENTIFIC    DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    NEGRO 

life  which  he  had  seen  lived  by  the  ruling  class,  which,  however  full  it 
really  was  of  resposibilities  and  complex  situations  necessitating  high 
administrative  ability,  appealed  to  him  as  a  life  of  idleness  and  of  pleasure. 
This  was  his  idea  of  a  freeman,  and  as  a  freeman  he  aspired  to  a  life  of  this 
kind.  He  began  to  think  of  leaving  his  old  way  of  living  and  to  hope  for 
a  new  order.  The  ability  to  reach  out  and  develop  new  lines  of  work,  to 
study  the  things  by  which  he  was  surrounded  and  to  make  the  most  of 
them,  to  go  down  into  the  earth  and  find  the  coal  and  the  iron,  the  gold 
and  the  silver  concealed  there,  to  find  out  what  the  land  would  produce 
and  how  it  would  produce  more  in  quantity  and  in  variety  by  proper  addi- 
tions to  the  soil  (in  other  words,  the  secrets  of  chemistry,  of  physics,  of 
mathematics,  of  the  principles  of  mechanics),  all  this  was  to  him  a  closed 
book.  And  a  people  so  environed  could  not  get  the  most  from  their  sur- 
roundings, nor  themselves  reach  any  higher  development.  "Without  the 
necessity  of  meeting  emergencies  which  are  constantly  arising  in  every-day 
business  life,  there  was  no  need  to  develop  resourcefulness,  quick  expedients 
to  overcome  the  unlooked-for  occurrence,  or  the  accident  which  happens, 
perhaps,  the  next  minute.  Constantly  under  the  will  of  another  and  sub- 
jected to  his  personal  oversight,  there  was  no  place  for  that  highest  of 
opportunities  in  the  business,  commercial  and  technical  world,  the  chance 
to  organize,  to  direct,  to  administer.  Executive  ability  or  the  chance  to 
develop  it  by  taking  charge  of  work,  of  a  business,  laying  out  the  plans, 
gathering  the  workmen  and  material,  keeping  everybody  busy,  looking 
ahead  to  avoid  delays,  these  things  which  seem  so  natural  to  those  with 
different  surroundings  and  which  are  a  part  of  their  inheritance,  had  no 
part  in  the  colored  man's  life.  In  fact,  the  opposite  condition  seemed  the 
perfectly  natural  one.  Instead  of  keeping  material  on  hand  to  avoid  delays, 
by  not  having  them  on  hand,  a  few  idle  days  might  result,  and  where 
bread  and  clothes  and  shelter  come  whether  one  works  or  not,  and  no  more 
and  no  less  whether  he  works  or  not,  the  chances  are  that  with  most  of  us 
under  such  circumstances  we  would  welcome  the  idle  days,  especially  if  the 
weather  were  warm  and  the  fishing  good. 

Technical  training  has  been  the  last  of  the  educational  methods  to  be 
accepted  by  the  negro.  As  has  been  pointed  out,  the  powerful  and  all- 
dominating  influence  of  the  master  class  in  slavery  days  held  up  to  him  the 
constant  example  of  what  appeared  to  him  as  the  power  of  a  liberal  educa- 
tion to  secure  comfort  without  effort.  Hence  as  a  freeman  he  aspired  to  the 
same  life,  and  thought  that  the  means  of  attaining  to  such  a  life  was  to  be 
" liberally"  educated.  Book  learning,  as  such,  was  therefore  the  panacea 
for  all  his  ills.  No  sacrifice  was  too  great,  by  parent  and  none  by  child,  to 


EGBERT    E.    TAYLOE,    '92  169 

attend  school  and  get  pure  book  learning,  and  as  much  of  it  as  possible. 
Experience  soon  demonstrated  that  to  the  great  number  there  must  be 
added  to  the  "  liberal "  education  the  ability  to  do  a  particular  thing  well. 

One  or  two  pioneer  young  men  more  venturesome  than  others  con- 
ceived the  idea  of  becoming  doctors.  Some  of  their  friends  treated  it  as  a 
joke.  In  spite  of  this  they  persisted,  became  regularly  graduated  physi- 
cians, and  afterwards  successful  practitioners.  This  opened  a  new  field  and 
now  there  are  about  3500  colored  physicians  in  successful  practice.  From 
the  doctor  it  was  but  a  natural  step  to  the  dentist,  the  pharmacist  and  the 
trained  nurse. 

The  engineer,  the  architect,  the  chemist  were  persons  met  with  occa- 
sionally in  the  South,  but  rarely  by  the  negro,  and  their  impress  on  him 
was  slight.  The  industrial  conditions  under  which  he  had  worked  were  not 
such  as  to  lead  him-  to  seek  any  special  industrial  equipment.  He  was  seek- 
ing to  get  away  from  it  as  far  as  possible.  If  not  for  himself,  certainly  he 
had  other  ambitions  for  his  children.  With  deeper  insight  and  a  clearer 
vision,  some  of  the  white  friends  of  the  negro  and  some  of  the  colored  men 
themselves,  studying  the  situation  and  noting  the  drift  away  from  the 
industrial  pursuits  as  applied  to  the  skilled  trades,  and  that  great  human 
industry,  agriculture,  began  a  crusade  for  the,  revival  of  an  interest  in 
them.  With  some  personal  degree  of  satisfaction  I  feel  that  I  have  taken 
some  small  part  in  this  renaissance,  and  it  is  alluded  to  here  because  it  has 
been  through  the  influence  of  our  Alma  Mater  in  the  results  of  the  training 
received  in  this  institution  that  such  has  been  possible. 

Years  ago,  when  it  was  known  that  I  was  to  leave  my  home  to  study 
at  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  many  of  the  home  people 
asked,  What  is  the  use?  And  a  question  of  similar  nature  was  asked  by 
many  in  other  places.  After  graduation,  what?  Where  is  the  field? 

Leaving  the  Institute  immediately  after  graduation  I  took  up  the 
practice  of  architecture  and  designed  several  private  and  public  buildings. 
Five  schools  offered  to  me  the  direction  or  organization  of  the  industrial 
work,  and  after  some  hesitancy  I  responded  to  the  call  to  go  to  the  Tuskc- 
gee  Normal  and  Industrial  Institute,  at  Tuskegee,  Ala.,  to  serve  as  its 
architect  and  instructor  in  architectural  and  mechanical  drawing.  There 
was  no  drawing  attempted  at  the  Tuskegee  Institute  at  that  time,  and  the 
mechanical  work  was  largely  in  the  hands  of  men  trained  in  the  old  way, 
who  did  their  work  usually  without  definite  plans  or  drawings.  Introduc- 
ing plans,  blue-prints  and  specifications  as  a  part  of  every  mechanical  job, 
however  small,  and  instructing  the  students  in  making  and  using  drawings, 
Jed  to  changes  which  inevitably  follow  newer  and  better  ways  of  doing 


170  THE    SCIENTIFIC    DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    NEGRO 

things.  Unable  to  respond  to  the  new  methods,  the  older  men  gradually 
gave  way  to  younger  and  better  trained  men.  After  experience  elsewhere, 
T  later  returned  to  Tuskegee  to  occupy  a  new  position  as  Director  of 
Mechanical  Industries,  including  the  direction  and  supervision  of  twenty- 
five  trades,  embracing  among  others  architectural  drawing,  steam  engineer- 
ing, electrical  engineering  and  the  building  trades. 

The  work  at  Tuskegee  Institute  has  offered  the  opportunity  to  come 
in  contact  with  thousands  of  young  men.  These  young  men  as  graduates 
or  undergraduates  from  the  Tuskegee  Institute  have  gone  over  large  parts 
of  this  country.  Some  of  the  methods  and  plans  of  the  Institute  of  Tech- 
nology have  been  transplanted  to  the  Tuskegee  Institute  and  have  flour- 
ished and  grown  there ;  if  not  the  plans  in  full,  certainly  the  spirit,  in  the 
love  of  doing  things  correctly,  of  putting  logical  ways  of  thinking  into  the 
humblest  task,  of  studying  surrounding  conditions,  of  soil,  of  climate,  of 
material  and  of  using  them  to  the  best  advantage  in  contributing  to  build 
up  the  immediate  community  in  which  the  persons  live,  and  in  this  way 
increasing  the  power  and  the  grandeur  of  the  nation.  And  there  has  been 
an  ever- widening  influence :  one  graduate  of  the  Tuskegee  Institute  has  done 
satisfactory  architectural  work  for  the  United  States  Government,  another 
is  an  architect  in  New  York  City,  another  is  in  successful  practice  in  the 
State  of  Missouri,  another  is  an  installing  and  operating  electrical  engineer 
for  a  Southern  town,  another  is  a  mechanical  and  operating  engineer  for  an 
ice  plant  and  water  system  for  another  Southern  town.  This  list  might 
be  continued  at  considerable  length  and  should  serve  as  a  witness  of  the 
part  which  the  Institute  of  Technology  is  contributing  to  the  scientific 
awakening  of  the  negro. 


SECTION  C. 
ADMINISTRATION   AND    MANAGEMENT 


AN  OBJECT  LESSON  IN  EFFICIENCY. 

By  WILFRED  LEWIS,  '75, 
President,  The  Tabor  Mfg.  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

PUBLIC  attention  has  recently  been  drawn  very  pointedly  to  the  sub- 
ject of  scientific  management,  and  the  Tabor  Manufacturing  Company,  of 
which  the  writer  is  president,  has  frequently  been  cited  as  an  illustration  of 
what  has  already  been  accomplished  along  the  lines  laid  down  by  Frederick 
W.  Taylor. 

Prior  to  my  connection  with  the  Tabor  Manufacturing  Company,  in 
1900,  the  whole  of  my  active  business  life  had  been  devoted  to  the  cause  of 
efficiency  in  machines,  and  I  believe  with  some  measure  of  success,  but  I  had 
yet  to  learn  the  value  of  good  management  in  the  development  of  men,  and 
the  greater  importance  in  business  life  of  efficiency  in  men  as  against 
efficiency  in  machines. 

As  then  organized  and  conducted  in  1900,  the  business  was  rather  com- 
mercial in  character.  The  machines  were  built  on  contract  to  our  designs 
and  the  activity  of  the  company  was  directed  chiefly  toward  their  sale  and 
demonstration.  I  soon  found  a  number  of  details  in  which  the  designs 
could  be  improved,  but  as  a  promoter  of  sales,  I  was  entirely  out  of  my 
element.  I  proposed,  therefore,  that  we  should  have  a  shop  of  our  own,  and 
begin  to  realize  whatever  profit  there  might  be  in  manufacturing. 

At  this  time  I  was  advised  by  my  well-wishers  to  maintain  an  open  shop 
and  keep  down  the  number  of  clerks  or  non-producers.  Success,  I  was  told, 
depended  upon  the  ratio  of  producers  to  non-producers  in  any  well  managed 
concern.  Draftsmen  were  recognized  as  a  necessary  evil,  the  fewer  of  whom 
the  better,  and  one  good  superintendent  to  lay  out  the  work  and  keep  it  mov- 
ing through  the  shop  was  considered  quite  enough.  In  fact,  to  the  casual 
observer,  we  had  hardly  enough  work  to  keep  a  good  man  busy  and  we  did 
not  appreciate  the  need  of  better  shop  management  until  our  growing  busi- 
ness began  to  show  increasing  losses.  Before  we  were  aware  of  any  dis- 
satisfaction, also,  and  within  a  year  of  the  opening  of  our  shop,  we  were 
surprised  by  a  general  strike  for  higher  wages  and  shorter  hours.  Our  un- 
guardedness  or  lack  of  management  had  encouraged  our  men  to  combine 
against  us  and  make  unreasonable  demands.  We  were  then  paying  them 

173 


174  AN  OBJECT  LESSON  IN  EFFICIENCY 

more  than  they  earned  and  they  insisted  upon  having  still  more,  which  sim- 
ply meant  ruin  to  the  company  in  a  shorter  time.  Our  strike  was  com- 
promised by  the  concession  of  shorter  hours  at  the  same  pay,  the  men  agree- 
ing to  turn  out  the  same  amount  of  work  per  day.  There  was  no  difficulty 
about  their  doing  this,  and  for  a  time,  I  believe  they  kept  their  promise,  but 
a  day's  work  was  then  with  us,  as  it  is  now  with  nearly  the  whole  world  of 
industry,  a  very  variable  and  indefinite  result  for  a  given  expenditure  of  time 
or  money.  We  had  no  standard  by  which  a  proper  day's  work  could  be  fixed 
except  the  very  shaky  and  misleading  one  of  the  best  that  had  been  done  be- 
fore, and  having,  as  we  were  now  well  aware,  an  organized  resistance  against 
any  increase  in  output  or  efficiency  to  meet,  the  outlook  for  the  company  was 
not  encouraging. 

At  the  same  time  we  knew  that  machines  had  been  built  by  others  for 
less  than  they  were  costing  us,  and  we  felt  confident  that  a  way  could  be 
found  out  of  our  difficulties.  But  we  were  obliged  to  sell  stock  and  borrow 
money  for  several  years,  until  it  seemed  unreasonable  to  expect  any  further 
financial  aid.  Fortunately  my  good  friend,  Taylor,  who  was  then  writing  his 
remarkable  essay  on  "  Shop  Management,"  came  again  to  our  assistance  and 
offered  to  loan  us  more  money  if  we  would  agree  to  put  in  his  system  of 
management.  We  were  only  too  glad  to  do  this,  without  having  any  concep- 
tion of  what  it  really  was  or  would  finally  mean  to  us.  Accordingly,  the 
money  was  advanced  and  in  due  time  the  installation  of  the  Taylor  system 
was  begun. 

Advance  sheets  from  "  Shop  Management,"  which  was  read  before  the 
American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers  in  1903,  were  sent  to  me  as  they 
were  written  and  Mr.  Taylor  himself  gave  some  personal  attention  to  the 
introduction  of  his  system.  The  enormous  amount  of  detail  involved  re- 
quired, however,  the  constant  attention  of  a  trained  expert  and  we  were 
fortunate  at  the  outset  in  securing  the  services  of  Mr.  Barth,  one  of  Mr. 
Taylor's  assistants  in  the  reorganization  of  the  Bethlehem  Steel  Company. 
We  had  nothing  in  the  nature  of  system  that  fitted  in  or  was  worth  preserv- 
ing, and  Mr.  Barth  was  obliged  in  the  first  place  to  lay  the  foundation  for 
the  structure  he  proposed  to  rear.  This  meant  a  lot  of  preparatory  work  for 
which  there  was  no  immediate  use  and  from  which  no  return  could  be  ex- 
pected until  other  features  were  introduced. 

In  the  meantime,  the  business  had  to  go  on,  while  those  engaged  in 
running  it  were  subjected  to  more  or  less  inconvenience  by  the  changes  pro- 
posed, and  these  led  to  a  good  deal  of  irritation  and  dissatisfaction  in  cer- 
tain quarters.  In  fact,  it  was  not  long  before  a  revolt  began  to  be  felt  which 
was  not  confined  entirely  to  the  shop.  At  this  crisis  Mr.  Taylor  recognized 


WILFRED  LEWIS,    '75  175 

the  futility  of  attempting  to  reorganize  a  house  divided  against  itself  and 
insisted  upon  his  right  to  direct  the  introduction  of  his  system  according  to 
agreement  without  obstruction  or  interference  in  the  shape  of  adverse 
criticism,,  and  for  a  time  the  good  work  went  on  without  active  opposition, 
perhaps,  but  certainly  without  the  hearty  good  will  most  needed  from  with- 
in. Mr.  Barth  was  obliged,  as  he  proceeded  in  his  work,  to  call  for  more 
and  more  assistance,  and  as  new  men  were  added  to  our  planning  depart- 
ment, the  cost  of  the  new  system  began  to  draw  so  heavily  upon  our  re- 
sources that  for  a  year  or  two  we  seemed  to  be  actually  losing  ground,  and 
we  certainly  would  have  been  obliged  to  suspend  but  for  the  grit  and  deter- 
mination of  Mr.  Taylor,  who  had  the  courage  of  his*  convictions  and  carried 
us  through  the  storm  which  culminated  in  the  resignation  and  withdrawal 
of  the  opposing  forces. 

From  this  time  forward  conditions  began  to  improve,  and  the  work  be- 
gan to  bear  fruit.  It  was  not  long  before  we  ceased  to  lose  money,  broke 
even  and  began  to  gain.  A  better  spirit  prevailed,  better  wages  were  earned, 
and  production  increased  so  rapidly  that  I  was  lost  in  astonishment  at  the 
potency  of  the  engine  gratuitously  placed  in  our  hands.  We  had  in  effect 
been  installing  at  great  expense  a  new  and  wonderful  means  for  increasing 
the  efficiency  of  labor,  in  the  benefits  of  which  the  workman  himself  shared, 
and  we  have  to-day  an  organization  second  I  believe  to  none  in  its  loyalty, 
efficiency  and  steadfastness  of  purpose.  Its  loyalty  was  tested  a  year  ago  at 
the  time  of  the  general  strike  when  the  streets  of  Philadelphia  were  filled 
with  thousands  of  idle  men  bent  upon  inducing  others  to  join  them.  Out  of 
the  150  then  employed,  but  one  man  failed  to  resist  the  pressure,  and  he  was 
paid  off  without  regret  as  one  of  our  least  efficient  workers. 

I  have  given  the  above  brief  history  of  my  experience  to  emphasize  the 
adverse  conditions  under  which  the  Taylor  system  was  installed  and  carried 
on  to  a  successful  conclusion.  I  do  not  believe  so  much  opposition  will  ever 
be  encountered  by  others,  because  carping  criticism  has  been  subdued,  if  not 
yet  silenced,  and  successful  methods  are  sure  to  be  emulated;  but  more  or 
less  resistance  is  always  to  be  anticipated,  because  any  change,  however  slight 
in  management,  may  be  taken  as  a  reflection  upon  previous  methods  of 
reaching  the  desired  end,  and  therefore  as  personal  to  the  advocate  of  dis- 
carded ways  and  means. 

The  suppression  of  personal  pride  and  prejudice,  with  the  disposition 
to  seize  and  adopt  the  best  ideas  to  be  found  anywhere,  has  been  a  great  help 
to  the  scientific  habit  of  thought  under  which  the  Taylor  system  of  scientific 
management  has  been  built  up  and  will  continue  to  grow.  Differences  of 
opinion  may  arise  and  different  conclusions  may  be  drawn  from  the  same 


176  AN  OBJECT  LESSON  IN  EFFICIENCY 

evidence,  but  a  body  of  fundamental  principles  has  already  been  established 
by  Mr.  Taylor  which  may  safely  be  taken  as  the  nucleus  for  a  new  science 
of  management.  As  in  any  other  science  these  fundamental  principles  must 
be  subjected  to  rigid  analysis  and  demonstrated  in  a  practical  way  by  suc- 
cessful performances,  seeking  always  "  truth  for  authority  and  not  authority 
for  truth." 

The  advice  given  me  eleven  years  ago  about  keeping  an  open  shop  and 
weeding  out  the  non-producers  was  good  orthodox  business  gospel  at  that 
time,  and  it  would  no  doubt  still  be  endorsed  to-day  by  95  per  cent  of  the 
manufacturers  in  this  country,  who  would  also  subscribe  to  the  principle  of 
one  supreme  authority  delegated  and  subdivided  among  subordinates  on  the 
military  plan,  as  the  only  practical  type  of  management  for  any  business. 

But  who  knows,  when  he  has  an  open  shop,  to  what  extent  it  may  be 
filled  by  conspirators  ready  to  take  advantage  of  the  first  opportunity  to 
make  unreasonable  demands,  and  how  can  loyalty  be  fostered  and  encouraged 
throughout  all  departments  of  a  diversified  business?  How  comes  it  also 
that  a  large  increase  in  the  force  of  non-producers  can  be  made  to  effect  such 
an  enormous  increase  in  output  ? 

In  1910  the  Tabor  Manufacturing  Company  turned  out  two  and  one- 
half  times  as  much  value  in  finished  product  as  it  ever  did  under  the  old 
regime  with  the  same  force.  Formerly  for  every  ten  men  engaged  as 
producers,  or  "  chip-makers,"  as  Mr.  J.  M.  Dodge  defines  them,  we  had  not 
more  than  one  man  connected  with  the  shop  as  a  non-producer.  Now  we 
have  fewer  men  at  machines  with  three  times  as  many  non-producers  turn- 
ing out  practically  three  times  as  much  work,  because  prices  are  lower  to-day 
than  they  were  five  or  six  years  ago  and  two  and  one-half  times  the  value 
means  about  three  times  the  product. 

To  explain  in  detail  these  anomalous  results  would  carry  me  far  beyond 
the  limits  of  this  paper  and  call  for  the  elucidation  of  a  system  which  had 
better  be  studied  at  first  hand  in  the  admirable  series  of  articles  by  Mr. 
Taylor  now  appearing  in  the  American  Magazine  and  the  "  Principles  of 
Scientific  Management"  just  published  by  Harper  &  Brothers.  At  the  same 
time  the  type  of  management  under  which  we  are  working  should  be  seen 
in  operation  to  be  fully  appreciated,  and  I  must  confess  that  in  the  begin- 
ning, eight  years  ago,  I  gathered  very  little  about  it  from  my  perusal  of  the 
advance  sheets  on  "  Shop  Management."  The  fact  is  that  the  system  is  so 
engrossing  and  calls  for  so  much  undivided  attention  that  it  is  almost 
futile  for  any  one  actively  engaged  in  meeting  customers,  providing  for  their 
wants  and  collecting  accounts,  to  undertake  its  installation  single-handed. 


WILFRED  LEWIS,   '75  177 

The  reorganization  should  therefore  be  left  to  an  expert  who  is  not  hampered 
by  the  necessity  of  running  the  business. 

It  is  not  an  easy  matter  to  start  any  innovation  in  an  open  shop  full  of 
union  men,  and,  as  might  be  anticipated,  the  appearance  of  a  man  with  a 
stop  watch  and  tally  sheet  was  at  first  very  irritating  and  strenuously  op- 
posed by  the  workmen.  So  also  was  the  suggestion  of  a  bonus  for  the  suc- 
cessful performance  of  an  alloted  task.  But  the  kickers  were  gradually  con- 
verted or  discouraged,  better  disciplne  was  established  and  a  few  of  the  men 
were  soon  earning  30  per  cent  more  wages  than  they  could  command  else- 
where. 

In  the  beginning  the  men  were  suspicious  and  disinclined  to  believe  that 
a  good  performance  was  not  to  be  the  signal  for  a  cut  in  price,  but  they  have 
since  learned  by  experience  that  prices  are  fixed  by  the  management  upon 
definite  knowledge  of  all  the  time  elements  involved  in  any  piece  of  work  and 
that  the  time  allowed  will  nbt  be  changed  so  long  as  the  method  employed 
remains  the  same.  In  this  way  the  management  demonstrates  its  loyalty 
to  the  workmen  and  they  in  turn  are  glad  of  an  opportunity  to  demonstrate 
their  loyalty  to  the  management,  as  they  did  last  year. 

We  pay  better  wages  for  fuller  and  better  results  performed  in  a  definite 
way,  and  yet  there  is  no  driving  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the  word.  The 
tasks  assigned  to  the  workmen  are  easily  within  their  ability  to  perform  and 
when  new  work  is  given  out,  as  occasionally  happens,  at  day  rates,  before  the 
time  on  the  job  has  been  set,  nobody  wants  to  take  it  because  there  is  no 
bonus  attached  for  its  quick  and  accurate  performance. 

But  our  wonderful  increase  in  production  is  not  due  entirely  to  rapidity 
of  performance,  for  in  some  instances  very  little  gain  in  that  direction  has 
been  made.  A  great  deal  is  due  to  the  functional  foreman  whose  duty  it  is 
to  prepare  and  guide  the  way  of  every  piece  of  work  going  through  the  shop. 
The  old  notion  that  a  man  cannot  serve  two  masters  or  take  orders  from 
more  than  one  superior  is  denied  by  the  new  philosophy  which  makes  it  pos- 
sible for  the  workman  to  have  as  many  bosses  as  there  are  functions  to  be 
performed.  There  is  no  conflict  of  authority  unless  the  functions  overlap, 
and  even  there  such  conflict  as  may  arise  is  salutary  and  to  the  interest  of 
the  company.  A  gang  boss,  for  instance,  covers  one  class  of  machines  or 
work,  and  it's  his  business  to  see  that  every  man  is  provided  with  at  least 
one  new  job  with  all  the  tools  and  fixtures  ready  for  its  immediate  perform- 
ance as  soon  as  the  job  upon  which  he  is  engaged  has  been  completed.  He  also 
.gives  the  necessary  instructions  about  setting  the  work,  explains  the  draw- 
ings and  teaches  the  workman  how  to  set  his  work  when  necessary.  This 
man  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  running  of  machines  and  does  not  interfere 


178  AN  OBJECT  LESSON  IN  EFFICIENCY 

at  all  with  the  speed  boss  who  also  has  supervision  in  his  function  over  the 
same  men  as  the  gang  boss  and  sees  that  each  machine  is  run  at  its  proper 
speed  with  feed  and  cut  as  per  written  instructions.  He  also  teaches  the 
workman  and  gives  him  such  practical  assistance  as  may  be  needed.  An  in- 
spector also  helps  the  same  set  of  men  and  sees  that  the  work  done  is  of  the 
right  quality  and  that  the  first  piece  made  is  up  to  the  standard  in  all  dimen- 
sions, fit  and  finish.  He  also  makes  further  inspection  from  time  to  time  to 
see  that  the  standard  is  maintained.  An  over-zealous  speed  boss  in  his  desire 
for  a  large  output  may  impair  the  quality  of  the  work  done  by  exceeding  the 
speed  limit,  and  there  is  therefore  the  possibilty  of  a  conflict  between  the 
speed  boss  and  the  inspector,  but  the  inspector's  requirements  must  be  ful- 
filled and  such  a  conflict  cannot  fail  to  be  salutary,  because  rapidity  of  pro- 
duction when  accompanied  by  inferior  results  is  never  to  be  desired,  and  in 
almost  all  cases  some  method  is  found  by  which  high  speed  can  be  main- 
tained and  the  best  quality  preserved.  It  rarely  happens  that  the  superin- 
tendent or  manager  is  called  upon  to  adjust  a  difficulty  between  the  two 
functional  foremen. 

In  assembling  the  various  parts  required  to  make  a  complete  machine 
the  stock  keeper  sees  that  all  the  parts  for  a  group  of  machines  are  in  hand 
ready  to  go  together  before  work  is  begun  upon  any  one  of  them  and  the 
whole  group  is  finished  at  the  same  time. 

To  avoid  delays  incident  to  materials  which  should  be  ordered  in  ad- 
vance, the  storeroom  must  carry  a  sufficient  amount  of  stock  to  cover  the 
time  required  for  replacements,  and  this  is  cared  for  by  a  storekeeper  and 
his  clerical  assistants  in  an  automatic  way.  Formerly  it  was  necessary  for 
the  superintendent  to  bear  in  mind  or  to  look  ahead  to  see  what  was  wanted 
in  advance,  but  with  many  thousand  parts  going  through  the  shop  at  once, 
important  details,  sometimes  few  and  sometimes  many,  were  invariably  over- 
looked, which  meant  delay  and  disappointment  to  the  customer  and  very 
often  the  cancellation  of  orders.  Now  a  balance  of  stores  is  kept  in  the  plan- 
ning department  by  which  new  orders  are  placed  as  soon  as  the  stock  on 
hand  falls  below  a  certain  established  minimum  kept  plainly  in  view  against 
every  detail.  This  minmimum  may  vary  as  conditions  change  and  it  is  fixed 
by  the  discretion  of  the  manager  of  the  planning  department  in  consultation 
with  the  sales  department. 

In  the  planning  department,  which  is  to  the  shop  what  the  drawing 
room  has  been  for  many  years  to  the  superintendent,  every  new  machine  is 
charted  to  show  the  progress  of  the  work  through  the  shop  and  every  piece 
is  provided  with  an  instruction  card  for  its  proper  manipulation,  showing 
the  machine  upon  which  it  is  to  be  made,  the  tools  and  fixtures  required,  the 


WILFEED  LEWIS,    75  179 

feeds  and  speeds  to  be  used,  the  sequence  of  operations  and  the  time  allowed 
in  detail  for  each  and  every  elementary  movement.  As  these  operations  are 
performed  they  are  checked  off  in  a  route  file  from  which  can  be  seen  at  any 
time  the  exact  condition  of  the  work  and  the  time  remaining  for  its  com- 
pletion. 

An  order-of- work-clerk  directs  the  progress  of  the  orders  to  be  filled  in 
accordance  with  a  schedule  prepared  by  the  manager  in  consultation  with 
the  sales  department  and  he  has  before  him  in  miniature  a  view  of  the  whole 
shop,  showing  every  machine  or  vise,  the  work  being  done  on  each,  the  work 
ready  to  be  done  and  the  work  ahead  in  the  shop,  but  which  has  not  yet 
arrived  at  the  machine.  This  is  a  large  board  or  wall  plate,  which  shows  also 
what  machines  are  manned  and  where  a  man  can  be  conveniently  shifted 
when  there  is  no  work  ahead  at  his  particular  machine.  By  this  means  all 
of  the  work  in  the  shop  is  kept  moving  in  proper  balance  at  a  normal  rate 
of  speed,  men  are  taken  on  or  laid  off  as  the  exigencies  of  business  may 
require,  and  no  loss  is  sustained  by  the  usual  tendency  of  workmen  to  relax 
when  orders  are  falling  off  and  work  ahead  is  hard  to  find.  At  such  times 
we  are,  of  course,  obliged  to  curtail  production,  and  the  situation  being  ap- 
parent to  all,  no  complaint  is  made  against  a  reduction  in  time,  which  we 
always  prefer  to  a  loss  of  well-trained  men. 

A  well-equipped  tool  room  in  charge  of  a  competent  man  is  a  sine  qua 
non  in  any  machine  shop,  and  here  also  one  of  our  greatest  improvements 
has  been  made.  Formerly  each  workman  was  inclined  to  accumulate  his  own 
assortment  of  tools  and  fixtures  which  were  stowed  away  in  dark  corners  and 
kept  in  disorder  and  confusion.  Now  everything  comes  in  perfect  order 
(and  the  best  of  its  kind)  from  the  tool  room  as  required  and  goes  back 
again  when  the  job  for  which  it  was  taken  out  is  finished.  Tools  are  ground 
to  standard  forms  and  not  to  suit  the  whims  of  individual  workmen  and 
the  tool  room  is  responsible  for  the  condition  of  all  tools  sent  out. 

The  drawing  room  is  perhaps  of  all  departments  less  affected  by  the  new 
order  of  things  than  any  other,  and  yet  there  is  an  indirect  effect  due  to  the 
atmosphere  of  activity  which  pervades  the  whole  plant.  Here  the  work  is 
by  its  very  nature  more  or  less  original  and,  of  course,  no  time  can  be  set  for 
the  completion  of  that  which  is  not  definitely  known,  and  which  grows  into 
shape  by  a  process  of  trial  and  error,  until  something  satisfactory  is  attained. 
Designing  is  not  therefore  amenable  to  time  study,  and,  depending  largely 
as  it  does  upon  inspiration,  there  is  no  superior  intelligence  to  direct  its 
progress.  It  is  in  the  nature  of  original  research  which  flourishes  and  bears 
its  best  fruit  under  adverse  criticism.  A  good  designer  is  like  a  good  com- 
poser, his  work  is  creative  and  full  of  harmonies,  and  being  an  artist  in  his 


180  AN  OBJECT  LESSON  IN  EFFICIENCY 

line  he  cannot  be  held  to  a  time  schedule.  In  original  work.,  the  incentive,, 
therefore,  must  come  from  within  rather  than  from  without,  and  this  is  gen- 
erally inborn  with  the  ability  to  create.  Copyists,  on  the  other  hand,  who 
always  need  direction,  might  be  brought  under  the  domination  of  time  study 
and  in  many  clerical  operations  this  has  been  done,  but  we  have  not  yet 
attempted  to  fix  tasks  in  tracing  or  bookkeeping,  and  we  do  not  pretend  to 
say  that  our  development  is  by  any  means  complete.  We  have  progressed, 
however,  to  a  point  which  makes  further  progress  comparatively  easy,  and  in 
the  face  of  stubborn  opposition  we  have  firmly  established  a  successful  busi- 
ness upon  the  principles  of  scientific  management  as  laid  down  by  Mr. 
Taylor.  This  means  increased  production  and  higher  wages  at  a  lower  cost, 
and  contains  the  key  to  the  solution  of  the  labor  problem.  Labor  is  made  to 
share  in  the  increased  production  realized,  and  the  reward  of  labor  is  made 
to  depend  upon  the  individual  effort  put  forth  in  production.  The  Taylor 
system  makes  more  room  on  top  and  gives  a  better  chance  to  rise.  Men  thus 
schooled  in  efficiency  are  qualified  for  better  service  and  learn  to  measure 
more  accurately  the  value  of  time. 

The  scientific  habit  of  thought  as  applied  by  Mr.  Taylor  to  the  pro- 
duction of  high-speed  steel,  has  resulted  in  speeding  up  machine  shops  about 
three  to  one,  and  I  think  it  is  not  unreasonable  to  expect  that  the  same  habit 
of  thought  as  applied  by  him  to  the  every-day  hand  work  of  men  will  even- 
tually result  in  doubling  the  average  output  of  labor  with  comparatively  little 
increase  in  the  physical  effort  required.  The  margin  for  improvement 
varies,  however,  so  greatly  in  different  trades  arid  countries  that  an  accurate 
.estimate  cannot  well  be  made. 


THE  SCIENTIFIC  THOUGHT  APPLIED  TO  RAILROAD 

PROBLEMS 

BENJAMIN  S.  HINCKLEY,  '99, 
Engineer  of  Tests,  N.  Y.5  N.  H.  &  H.  R.  R.  Co. 

ASSUMING  that  a  technical  graduate's  period  of  commercial  or  profes- 
sional activity  commences  when  he  is  twenty-two  years  of  age  and  that  he 
has  probably  attained  the  highest  position  in  his  special  line  of  activity  when 
he  has  reached  the  age  of  sixty-two,  we  can  say  that,  whatever  the  graduate 
accomplishes  within  these  forty  years  will  demonstrate  the  value  to  him  of 
his  scientific  training.  To  one  who  has  only  recently  passed  the  first  quarter 
in  this  period  of  productive  work,  it  appears  that  the  habit  of  scientific 
thought,  of  viewing  the  various  problems  from  a  mathematical  standpoint — 
so  to  speak — is  not  only  of  great  value,  but  is  in  fact  the  necessary  qualifica- 
tion for  carrying  on  the  special  line  of  work  in  which  he  finds  himself  at  the 
present  time.  Pausing  for  a  moment  to  take  a  few  levels  and  angles  in  order 
to  locate  the  relative  positions  of  the  scientific  man  and  those  of  the  same 
age  who  have  battled  with  life  without  the  technical  or  scientific  training, 
he  finds  that  there  are  many  conditions  surrounding  his  present  position  that 
give  him  great  satisfaction,  and  many  that  arouse  a  voice  within  him  saying 
"Did  it  really  pay?" 

On  a  second  reflection,  however,  this  doubt  disappears  entirely  and  cer- 
tainty of  the  strength  of  his  position  in  life  comes  back  to  him  and  he  realizes 
that  money  is  not  all.  A  few  of  his  bright  fellowmen  who  possibly  were 
obliged  to  start  out  in  life  at  an  early  age  with  practically  no  education  be- 
yond that  of  the  grammar  grade  are  perhaps  to-day  in  positions  of  trust  and 
responsibility,  drawing  salaries  much  larger  than  his,  but  these  are  few, 
and  as  he  looks  back  and  sees  the  much  larger  number  who  were  far  ahead 
in  the  race  only  a  few  years  ago  and  whom  he  has  gradually  passed  one  by 
one,  he  remembers  that  he  is  charged  with  a  powerful  ammunition  and  need 
not  waiver  in  the  strife  which  has  but  just  begun. 

This  feeling  of  self-confidence,  of  knowing  that  one  possesses  a  knowl- 
edge of  applied  science  which  no  one  can  take  away  is  the  greatest  asset  a 
man  can  possess.  Perhaps  the  greatest  advantage  that  he  possesses  over  his 
uneducated  fellowman  is  the  ability  to  concentrate  his  mind  on  the  subject  at 
hand  with  a  logical  and  consecutive  train  of  thought ;  the  ability  to  picture 

181 


182         SCIENTIFIC  THOUGHT  APPLIED  TO  EAILEOAD  PEOBLEMS 

in  his  mind  the  relative  bearing  of  one  portion  of  a  thought  structure  to  the 
other  parts.  The  course  in  descriptive  geometry  at  the  Institute  gives  the 
student  this  peculiar  characteristic  of  mental  activity  perhaps  more  than 
any  other  course  in  the  student's  training.  Accuracy  is  another  of  the  ad- 
mirable qualifications  naturally  possessed  by  the  technical  graduate;  for 
without  it  he  would  not  be  the  graduate  that  he  is.  This  most  important 
qualification  is  required  of  men  in  railroad  service.,  and  the  career  would  be 
short  indeed  for  the  man  handling  matters  pertaining  to  scientific  or  en- 
gineering problems  for  the  railroads  of  to-day,  were  he  inaccurate.  The 
scientific  man  in  railroad  work  finds  himself  in  need  of  these  consoling 
truths  as  he  pauses  now  and  then  for  reflection;  for  it  is  a  fact  that  the 
technical  graduate  is  only  just  beginning  to  receive  proper  recognition  in 
the  railroad  world.  He  has  brought  himself  into  favor  only  by  demonstrat- 
ing the  value  of  his  trained  mind  when  applied  to  the  solution  of  problems 
daily  arising  in  the  management  of  a  progressive  railroad  company. 

Scientific  management  is  being  discussed  extensively  by  those  interested 
in  the  economical  operation  of  railroad  companies.  This  discussion  is  in- 
spired from  the  desire  on  the  part  of  those  interested,  to  secure  the  highest 
possible  efficiency  under  prevailing  conditions  of  material  values  and  rates  of 
pay  to  employees.  Any  insinuation,  however,  that  the  value  of  scientific 
knowledge  or  the  use  of  such  knowledge  has  not  been  appreciated  by  the  rail- 
road companies  during  the  past  decade,  or  that  this  subject  of  scientific  man- 
agement is  a  new  one,  is  resented  by  the  army  of  technical  men  who  have 
been  giving  their  best  attention  to  this  work  and  who  have  received  their 
sustenance  from  the  railroad  companies  from  the  time  they  began  to  play 
their  part  in  the  world's  work. 

There  have  been  some  new  adaptations  of  scientific  thought  presented 
by  the  efficiency  engineers  which  have  appealed  to  some  people  strongly  and 
to  them  involve  the  sum  and  substance  of  scientific  management.  The  pub- 
licity given  to  these  later  developments,  in  shop  management  principally, 
have  overshadowed  the  more  substantial  and  certain  applications  of  scientific 
knowledge  which  have  existed  for  many  years  in  other  branches  of  railroad 
work. 

The  recent  innovation  in  the  management  of  railroad  shops,  the  organ- 
ization of  schools  for  apprentices  where  the  young  men  may  receive  instr  ac- 
tion on  the  theoretical  side  of  their  work  and  in  mechanical  drawing,  show 
recognition  on  the  part  of  railroads  of  the  great  necessity  for  the  education 
of  their  men  along  scientific  and  perhaps  theoretical  lines. 

The  rapid  development  of  this  country  and  the  congestion  of  the  people 
in  and  about  our  larger  cities  has  brought  upon  the  railroads  many  serious 


BENJAMIN  S.  HINCKLEY,    '99  183 

problems  requiring  for  their  solution  men  trained  in  all  branches  of  science 
and  engineering.  The  heavy  burdens  placed  upon  the  railroads  by  the  legisla- 
tive bodies,  both  national  and  state,  as  well  as  by  the  governing  bodies  of  the 
cities  and  towns,  require  extended  study  and  research  along  scientific  lines. 

When  one  reads  in  his  daily  paper  that  the  State  of  Massachusetts  or 
the  City  of  Boston  has  arranged  for  the  appointment  of  a  smoke  inspector 
in  order  to  insure  the  proper  observance  of  the  smoke  ordinances  and  secure 
the  proper  abatement  of  smoke  from  the  stacks  of  locomotives  and  power 
houses,  one  little  realizes  the  great  expense  to  which  the  railroad  companies 
have  gone  to  eliminate  this  smoke  nuisance  years  before  it  ever  occurred  to 
the  state  or  town  to  appoint  a  smoke  inspector.  The  coal  has  been  examined 
chemically  and  physically;  the  locomotive  has  been  designed  carefully  with 
the  idea  of  securing  as  nearly  perfect  combustion  as  possible;  many  patent 
devices  both  foreign  and  domestic  for  elimination  of  smoke  have  been  tried ; 
and  to  the  solution  of  this  problem  the  chemist  and  mechanical  engineer 
have  given  their  best  efforts. 

The  recent  adoption  of  additional  safety  appliance  laws  and  regulations 
by  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  has  made  necessary  many  expen- 
sive alterations  in  the  design  of  equipment  on  both  locomotives  and  cars, 
passenger  and  freight.  In  order  to  properly  protect  the  public  who  travel 
in  this  equipment  as  well  as  the  employees  who  operate  the  trains — the 
railroad  company  employs  a  corps  of  men  equipped  both  technically  and 
practically  who  analyze,  test  and  inspect  all  the  material  entering  into  the 
construction  of  this  rolling  stock. 

Specifications  are  prepared  which  are  rigidly  enforced,  and  the  funda- 
mental basis  of  all  specificatons  is  scientific  law.  A  purely  practical  man 
would  not  be  competent  to  formulate  these  specifications,  neither  would  a 
purely  scientific  man  succeed  in  this;  theory  and  practice  must  never  be 
separated  and  this  fact  is  made  plain  to  the  technical  man  very  early  in  his 
course  at  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  where  a  generous 
amount  of  time  is  devoted  to  practical  shop  work.  The  higher  development 
of  civilization  as  it  exists  to-day  and  is  being  urged  on  by  our  legislative 
acts,  demands  the  application  of  scientific  thought  and  action.  The  devo- 
tion of  many  to  the  conservation  of  the  country's  natural  resources  is  fol- 
lowed closely  by  the  railroad  companies'  interest  from  a  financial  stand- 
point. 

What  will  the  coal  bill  be  in  years  to  come?  What  will  the  expense 
for  cross  ties  be  ?  These  are  already  problems  of  great  importance  to  some 
of  the  railroads  and  there  is  no  doubt  regarding  the  serious  problem  of 
cross  tie  supply  to  nearly  every  road  to-day.  To  anyone  who  has  given  any 


184         SCIENTIFIC  THOUGHT  APPLIED  TO  EAILEOAD  PEOBLEMS 

attention  to  this  subject  the  situation  is  somewhat  appalling.  Some  substi- 
tute not  yet  devised  will  be  produced  to  replace  the  wooden  cross  tie;  this 
will  be  necessary.  "Will  it  be  a  steel  tie  or  one  of  concrete  or  will  it  be 
made  of  some  as  yet  unknown  compound?  The  scientific  man  must  be 
consulted  and  to  him  the  railroads  will  look  for  a  solution  of  this  very  im- 
portant problem.  Already  the  antiseptic  treatment  of  ties  and  timber  is 
resorted  to  by  a  great  many  roads.  For  this  work  to  be  done  successfully 
it  must  be  handled  in  a  most  scientific  and  intelligent  manner.  t  The  more 
extended  use  of  concrete  in  the  construction  of  bridges  and  buildings  has 
required  close  attention  on  the  part  of  men  of  science  in  order  to  prevent 
the  use  of  cement  not  properly  aerated — the  so-called  green  cement. 

The  treatment  of  water  used  in  the  boilers  of  the  power-houses  and 
locomotives  to  insure  a  minimum  of  deposit  on  the  boiler  shells  and  flues 
is  a  scientific  problem,  but  it  is  not  necessary  to  enter  into  these  matters  so 
well  understood.  While  reference  has  been  made  to  a  few  of  the  well 
known  problems  which  the  railroad  companies  have  met  and  are  to  meet, 
do  not  overlook  the  difficult  and  intricate  problems  with  which  the  public 
are  not  so  well  acquainted,  problems  which  if  not  solved  would  mean 
heavy  expense  and  perhaps  serious  interference  with  the  operation  of  the 
railroads.  The  disintegration  of  iron  piping  and  structural  material 
through  electrolysis  must  be  prevented.  The  interference  in  the  operation 
of  electric  circuits  conducted  through  wires  installed  for  one  class  of 
service  by  the  higher  powered  lines  nearby  and  required  for  another  class 
of  service,  must  be  avoided. 

The  heavier  weight  carried  in  a  single  freight  car  and  the  heavier 
weight  of  the  modern  locomotive  have  so  greatly  increased  the  pressure 
per  square  inch  of  bearing  surface  on  the  journal,  that  much  study  has 
been  given  to  determine  the  alloy  best  adapted  for  bearing  metal.  For  the 
same  reason  it  has  been  necessary  to  investigate  the  relative  merits  of  cast 
iron,  steel  or  nickelized  steel  for  use  in  making  the  wheels.  The  composi- 
tion and  design  of  the  rail  section  must  be  changed  to  meet  the  new  condi- 
tions. Many  designs  of  ventilating  equipment  have  been  tested,  the  air 
has  been  analyzed  carefully,  samples  of  the  air  being  taken  at  intervals 
throughout  long  trips  in  crowded  cars.  The  necessary  volume  of  fresh  air 
taken  into  a  car  to  insure  proper  supply  to  the  passengers  has  been  figured 
out  carefully  and  the  ventilator  openings  have  been  designed  along  purely 
scientific  lines. 

The  same  may  be  said  of  heating  passenger  cars.  A  system  of  heating 
must  be  adopted  which  will  be  controlled  automatically  to  insure  an  even 
temperature.  This  is  secured  through  the  action  of  regulators  which  are 


BENJAMIN  S.  HINCKLEY,   '99  185 

designed  on  scientific  principles  and  depend  upon  the  accurate  expansion 
and  contraction  of  metals  and  liquids  with  the  variation  in  the  amount  of 
heat.  The  scientific  man  must  be  employed  in  this  work. 

The  social  and  economic  problems  of  a  railroad  manager  to-day  are 
not  fully  appreciated.  He  is  much  more  efficient 'when  equipped  with  a 
broad  education  in  political  economy  which  forms  an  important  part  of 
the  technical  man's  course  of  study. 

A  hundred  other  problems  might  readily  be  mentioned,  but  those  re- 
ferred to  will  demonstrate  the  necessity  for  the  application  of  scientific 
thought  in  order  to  properly  solve  the  problems  which  the  railroads  are 
facing  to-day  and  will  have  to  face  in  the  future.  In  order  that  the  true  value 
of  the  scientific  man  may  be  fully  appreciated,  however,  let  us  not  be  led  into 
exaggerated  statements  regarding  the  net  results  to  be  secured  through 
scientific  management.  The  intrinsic  value  is  great  enough  and  is  well 
understood  by  the  railroad  companies.  Exaggerations  will  only  detract 
from  the  dignity  of  the  technical  graduate  and  lead  to  sarcasm  on  the  part 
of  the  few  who  may  still  be  in  doubt  as  to  the  value  of  a  technical  education. 


EELIABILITY  OF  MATERIALS. 

WALTER  C.  FISH,  '87, 
Manager,  Lynn  Works,  General  Electric  Co. 

THE  selection  of  this  subject,  which  is  overwhelmingly  broad,  is  a  re- 
flection of  admiration  for  the  progress  which  increased  reliability  has 
afforded  the  industrial  arts  in  their  attempts  to  'supply  more  efficiently  the 
general  needs  of  the  community.  A  precise  treatment  should  prominently 
deal,  among  other  things,  with  statistics  contrasting  the  variations  in  per- 
formance of  industrial  materials,  but  as  such  treatment,  except  narrowly, 
is  impossible  within  the  scope  of  this  paper,  I  shall  proceed  in  a  much 
more  general  fashion  and  with  particular  reference  to  some  of  the  princi- 
pal factors  on  which  reliability  depends.  This  unscientific  treatment  is  less 
justifiable  on  this  fiftieth  anniversary  of  the  Technology  we  honor  if  it 
fail  in  suggesting  the  debt  we  owe  our  technical  institutions  and  their 
product. 

In  ordinary  discussion,  some  such  practical  question  as  this  might  be 
asked:  Do  we,  in  the  common  affairs  of  life,  individually  and  as  a  com- 
munity, suffer  marked  delay,  loss, -or  discomfort,  because  of  failures  of 
materials  when  rationally  handled,  or,  more  simply,  do  our  materials  render 
the  service  we  have  the  right  to  expect  from  them  ?  It  seems  to  me  a  fair 
answer  to  this  question  and  one  arising  from  common  experience  is  that 
such  discomforts  and  losses  are  relatively  trivial  if  we  omit  those  due  to 
the  deliberate  and  usually  unwise  use  of  materials  for  which  reliability 
should  not  be  claimed  and  from  which  it  should  not  be  expected, — a  social 
and  economic  question  which  is  not  herein  considered, — and  if  we  omit 
the  occasional  faults  of  material  in  initial  commercial  development. 

We  travel  at  increasing  speeds  in  heavier  trains,  wide  rivers  are 
spanned  and  harbors  tunneled,  high  buildings  are  erected,  intricate  mechan- 
isms serve  us,  and  all  such  common  things  of  to-day  are  done  with  a  high 
degree  of  reliabilty  from  the  view-point  of  the  public.  Correct  design  re- 
quires and  concerns  the  interpretation  of  our  natural  laws  and  their  expres- 
sions, and  among  these  are  the  characteristics  of  our  materials;  and  that 
the  skilled  engineer  is  enabled  to  surround  us  with  the  facilites  we  enjoy  is 
general  proof  of  the  enormous  fund  of  exact  knowledge  which  science  has 
already  given  for  our  safety  and  .comfort. 

186 


WALTEE  C.  FISH,    '87  187 

If  it  be  admitted  that  the  public  can  view  with  some  complacency  the 
service  it  obtains  from  the  materials  more  commonly  employed,  at  least,  it  is 
none  the  less  true  that  such  results  are  far  from  easy  and  automatic  in 
accomplishment,  so  to  speak.  When  we  enter  behind  the  scenes  and  into 
our  industries,  we  shall  find  that  even  those  materials  which  by  every  good 
reason  should  be  dependable  become  the  source  of  loss,  and  that  constant 
vigilance  is  necessary  to  insure  the  reliability  we  seek.  While  such  losses 
may  not  be  commonly  large  in  percentage,  it  is  certain  that  in  the  aggre- 
gate the  economic  waste  is  huge,  and  the  elimination  of  the  causes  of  such 
losses  directly  concerns  not  only  the  pocketbook,  but  also  the  safety,  of  the 
public,  since  undetected  error  becomes  a  cause  of  danger.  What  then  are 
some  of  the  principal  causes  of  these  losses,  and  how  can  they  be  lessened  ? 

When  our  scientific  facts  in  any  case  are  sufficiently  well  established, 
it  is  axiomatic  that  the.  common  cause  of  loss  is  that  which  comes  from 
imperfect  skill  in  manipulation  and  direction.  This  statement  is  made 
with  full  appreciation  of  the  splendid  work  of  our  skilled  American 
artisan,  so  far  as  he  is  concerned,  but  it  is  none  the  less  true  that  there  is 
general  failure  to  realize  the  opportunities  for  more  precise  and  intelligent 
effort  on  the  part  of  the  individual.  If  we  are  to  generally  increase  the 
uniformity  of  production,  our  industries  must,  in  one  way  or  another,  pro- 
vide themselves  with  more  operations  and  methods  which  are  beyond  the 
likelihood  of  harm  from  human  agency;  or  the  standard  of  skill  through- 
out our  industries  must  be  raised.  Some  operations  may  exist  which  may 
well  be  performed  by  so-called  unskilled  labor,  but  all  manual  operations 
permit  some  degree  of  dexterity,  and  most  can  be  greatly  enhanced  in 
value  by  increased  skill.  This  is  a  portion  of  the  doctrine  of  the  exponents 
of  "efficiency"  and  "scientific  management,"  who  are  stimulating  admir- 
able thought,  but  as  we  are  occasionally  a  volatile  people  and  easily  pass 
from  the  threatened  industrial  invasion  of  Europe  of  a  few  years  ago  to  a 
hysterical  cry  for  increased  efficiency, — over  night,  so  to  speak, — there  is 
clanger  that  the  public  will  overlook  the  time  required  for  any  real  national 
change  in  mental  attitude  and  disposition.  A  fundamental  difficulty  to-day 
is  that  too  large  a  proportion  of  those  annually  entering  the  industrial 
army  are  quite  prepared  and  content  to  undertake  and  continuously  per- 
form minor  operations.  This  is  a  serious  problem  which  society  is  not 
adequately  solving.  In  such  matters  our  progress  will  bear  a  distinct  rela- 
tion to  the  sane  forces  increasing  the  .opportunities  and  intelligence  of  our 
present  and,  particularly,  of  our  rising  generation.  The  importance  of  skill 
and  the  good  which  may  come  from  it  are  not  sufficiently  emphasized  at  any 
sta°:e  of  life. 


188  EELIABILITY  OF  MATERIALS 

A  further  opportunity  to  lessen  unreliability  is  opened  by  a  better  ap- 
preciation and  use  of  existing  knowledge  and  experience.  Such  impetus 
has  been  given  scientific  research  by  reason  of  the  practical  value  of  its  own 
productions  and  so  many  facts  of  recent  acquisition  result  therefrom,  that 
the  producer,  unorganized  to  ascertain  and  use  such  facts,  will  continue  to 
repeat  the  errors  of  the  past,  from  which  often  all  mysteries  of  cause  might 
be  lifted.  The  skilful  framing  of  specifications  for  the  control  of  methods 
and  the  selection  of  materials  are  by  no  means  new,  but  they  are  functions 
of  increasing  difficulty  and  importance  if  the  community  is  to  be  better 
served. 

The  evolution  of  new  materials  is  constantly  proceeding  and  surrounds 
us.  There  are  perhaps  one  hundred  so-called  elements  of  nature  with  which 
to  deal,  and  under  the  pressure  of  the  chemist  and  metallurgist  new  com- 
binations of  these  elements  are  offered  as  new  materials,  for  public  service, 
with  such  frequency  that  few,  outside  of  the  particular  field  of  their  own 
activity  and  save  in  exceptional  cases,  realize  the  progress.  It  is  often  true 
that  these  new  combinations  are  replacing  in  character,  and,  with  slight 
changes,  in  composition,  omit  or  counteract  the  causes  for  unreliability  in 
their  predecessors.  Others  appear  with  totally  new  characteristics  and  per- 
mit new  arts.  Even  the  pure  elements  of  nature  under  the  touch  of  our  re- 
search laboratories  continue  to  unexpectedly  pass  into  the  ranks  of  useful 
and  reliable  materials.  Very  recently  the  element  tungsten,  as  a  pro- 
nounced example,  had  no  value  when  used  alone.  It  was  a  worthless  and 
unworkable  metal  unless  alloyed.  The  proposition  to  produce  from  it  a 
ductile  and  tenacious  wire  might  naturally  have  excited  ridicule,  but  to-day 
such  fabrication  has  been  accomplished,  and  tungsten  wires  for  incandescent 
lamps  are  used  with  great  economic  advantage  and  increased  satisfaction, 
and  such  results,  of  course,  are  practical  measures  of  reliability.  The  ele- 
ment boron  has  recently  been  separated  and  found  to  possess  characteristics 
of  such  possible  value  that  in  due  time  it  may  find  important  uses.  If  we 
consider  uniformity  of  performance  to  be  the  criterion  of  reliability,  this 
mere  evolution  of  new  materials  might  appear  to  have  no  direct  bearing  on 
the  subject,  but  as  no  such  work  can  be  intelligently  undertaken  and  accom- 
plished without  adding  to  our  existing  knowledge  of  materials  and  their 
characteristics,  there  is,  after  all,  a  close  relationship. 

Furthermore,  the  unwise  and  premature  exploitation  of  these  new 
materials  from  time  to  time  is  a  cause  of  loss  which  is  seldom  excusable. 
Some  materials,  like  mankind,  unexpectedly  take  on  infirmities  with  age 
and  service  and  from  causes  which  are  not  yet  understood,  but  it  is  a  func- 
tion of  the  manufacturer  to  determine  all  practical  characteristics  of  his 


WALTER  C.  FISH,   '87  189 

new  materials  before  public  service  is  undertaken,  and  this  he  can  generally 
do.  The  public  itself,  by  its  premature  desires,  is  at  times  at  fault.  To 
obtain  some  new  facility  or  pastime  it  pernlits  itself  to  be  transformed  into 
a  great' testing  laboratory,  and  attempts  the  use  of  undeveloped  mechanisms 
and  materials.  Such  public  demand,  however,  stands  for  speed  in  accom- 
plishments. The  automobile  of  a  few  years  ago  was  a  pronounced  illustra- 
tion of  premature  exploitation,  but,  to  its  credit,  it  forced  the  development, 
not  only  of  principles  of  design,  but  of  the  production  of  more  reliable 
materials  without  which  the  art  could  not  safely  proceed.  The  same  public 
desire  has  existed  for  increased  speed  of  transportation,  and  the  sanity 
with  which  this  desire  has  been  met,  though  involving  problems  of  great 
difficulty,  is  shown  by  the  relative  absence  of  accidents  of  transportation  due 
to  failure  of  material. 

If  I  have  not  attempted  to  recite  specific  measurements  of  reliability 
and  unreliability,  it  is  rather  to  suggest  the  good  which  may  be  derived  by  the 
collection,  diffusion,  increase  and  use  of  scientific  facts.  It  was  for  such 
purposes,  among  other  things,  that  the  wonderful  so-called  Alexandrian 
Museum  was  founded  some  2200  years  ago.  Few  deliberately  concern 
themselves  nowadays  with  schools  of  philosophy  and  thought,  but  it  is 
interesting  to  quote  the  scientific  methods  as  they  then  and  there  existed, 
and  to  suggest  that  the  partial  hiatus  in  those  methods  over  a  period  of 
centuries  was  responsible  for  a  halt  in  the  benefits  coming  from  applied 
science : 

"  The  essential  principle  of  the  Aristotelian  philosophy  was,  to  rise  from 
the  study  of  particulars  to  a  knowledge  of  general  principles  or  universals, 
advancing  to  them  by  induction.  The  induction  is  the  more  certain  as  the 
facts  on  which  it  is  based  are  more  numerous ;  its  correctness  is  established 
if  it  should  enable  us  to  predict  other  facts  until  then  unknown.  This 
system  implies  endless  toil  in  the  collection  of  facts,  both  by  experiment 
and  observation ;  it  implies  also  a  close  meditation  on  them." 

We  should  be  a  nation  of  blood  and  brain,  and  such  organisms  may 
resist  suddenly  applied  pressure  and  demand  the  exercise  of  patience. 
Molecules  and  atoms  are  pliable  in  the  hands  of  the  scientist  and  can  con- 
tinue to  be  forced  to  enhance  the  conditions  of  life  rapidly. 


A  CONSIDERATION  OF  CERTAIN  LIMITATIONS  OF 
SCIENTIFIC  EFFICIENCY. 

HENRY  G.  BBADLEE,  '91, 
Stone  &  Webster,  Boston. 

DURING  the  past  year  we  have  become  quite  familiar  with  the  word 
"  efficiency."  It  has  appeared  prominently  in  the  public  press,  in  popular 
magazines  and  in  many  more  serious  publications.  Recently  we  have  been 
startled  by  the  statement  that  our  steam  railroad  systems  are  wasting  a  mil- 
lion dollars  a  day, — three  hundred  and  sixty-five  million  dollars  a  year, — 
which  might  be  saved  through  the  adoption  of  so-called  scientific  methods 
of  management.  We  not  infrequently  see  statements  like  the  following, 
which  I  quote  from  a  volume  recently  published  by  a  prominent  industrial 
engineer : 

"Inefficiency  is  not  a  local  evil.  It  extends  through  the  whole  of 
American  life — extends  through  the  whole  industrial  life  of  the  world." 

"  The  American  railroad,  by  the  most  advanced  engineering  and  indus- 
trial methods,  carries  an  absurdly  small  net  load  for  an  absurdly  small 
distance  at  an  unnecessarily  high  cost." 

"Railroad  repair  shops  throughout  the  country  do  not  show  50  per 
cent  efficiency,  on  an  average,  as  regards  either  materials  or  labor." 

"  Coal  wastes  on  railroads  are  almost  as  bad  as  labor  and  material 
wastes." 

"This  inefficiency  of  effort  pervades  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  all 
American  activities." 

"  Inefficiency  similar  to  that  in  the  manufacturing  shops  exists  in  all 
building  operations  to  the  same  or  even  greater  extent." 

"The  United  States  and  State  agricultural  bureaus  have  determined 
like  inefficiencies  in  farming  operations." 

"  In  our  whole  educational  system  there  is  the  same  inefficiency. 
Years  are  given  to  study,  yet  better  results  have  been  attained  in  months." 

"Why  should  we  be  treated  to  such  wholesale  condemnation  as  this? 
In  all  modern  nations  industrial  development  has  claimed  the  services  of  the 
very  highest  order  of  intellect  and  ability.  Can  it  be  that  the  great  in- 
dustrial leaders  and  workers  of  the  past  have  all  been  wrong?  Can  it 

190 


HENRY  G.  BBADLEE,    '91  191 

be  that  they  have  been  directing  and  executing  the  work  of  the  world  with 
great  inefficiency,  and  is  it  possible  that  this  inefficiency  may  be  removed 
by  some  comparatively  simple  process?  This  whole  question  has  recently 
jumped  into  prominence  because  a  group  of  men,  who  have  been  doing 
some  very  excellent  and  successful  work,  have  been  tempted  into  the  realm 
of  prophecy,  and  have  possibly  allowed  their  enthusiasm  to  outstrip  their 
judgment. 

It  would,  no  doubt,  be  presumptuous  for  one  to  attempt  at  this  time 
to  place  a  limit  on  what  may  be  accomplished  in  the  future  through  scien- 
tific efficiency  methods,  and  certainly  no  one  would  wish  to  criticise  or  sug- 
gest weak  points  in  these  methods,  were  it  not  for  the  fact  that  the  public 
may  be  misled  by  exaggerated  statements  and  may  unreasonably  condemn 
those  who  are  doing  most  to  develop  and  direct  our  industries. 

In  view  of  the  statements  which  have  been  made  it  certainly  seems 
reasonable  and  proper  for  us  to  consider  whether  there  are  not  some  prac- 
tical limitations  which  have  prevented  a  general  adoption  of  these  methods  in 
the  past,  and  which  may  prevent  the  wholesale  overturning  of  our  present 
industrial  system  prophesied  by  certain  efficiency  engineers. 

Stripped  of  technicalities  the  method  of  the  modern  efficiency  engineer 
is  simply  this  :  first,  to  analyze  and  study  each  piece  of  work  before  it  is 
performed  ;  second,  to  decide  how  it  can  be  done  with  a  minimum  of 
wasted  motion  and  energy;  third,  to  instruct  the  workman  so  that  he  may 
do  the  work  in  the  manner  selected  as  most  efficient.  There  is  nothing 
fundamentally  new  in  this  method.  The  underlying  principle  is  being  used 
to-day  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  in  all  industries,  and  has,  no  doubt,  been 
used  at  all  times  in  the  past.  Let  us  keep  this  fact  just  as  clear  in  our 
minds  as  possible.  The  method  as  employed  by  the  modern  efficiency  engi- 
neer is  distinctive,  not  because  it  is  new,  but  because  it  is  carried  to  much 
greater  detail. 

The  modern  efficiency  engineer  is  not  content  to  plan  out  work  along 
broad  general  lines.  He  proposes  to  go  at  it  in  a  more  scientific  spirit.  He 
plans  to  make  a  systematic  study  of  every  detail  and  obtain  maximum  effi- 
ciency through  preventing  waste  and  loss  at  each  and  every  point.  With  this 
in  view  he  watches  every  motion  of  the  workman's  hands  and  body.  If 
any  unnecessary  movement  is  made  he  tries  to  change  the  conditions  under 
which  the  work  is  carried  on  or  gives  instructions  to  the  workman  so  that 
the  wasteful  act  may  be  avoided  in  the  future.  Every  motion  made  and 
every  bit  of  energy  expended  must  be  made  to  yield  useful  results  in  ao  far 
as  this  is  possible. 

The  form  of  organization  adopted  naturally  has  the  same  end  in  view. 


192  LIMITATIONS  OF  SCIENTIFIC  EFFICIENCY 

The  number  of  overseers,  supervisors,  experts  and  specialists,  in  propor- 
tion to  the  number  of  workmen,  is  materially  increased.  Special  account- 
ing systems  are  adopted  to  show  at  a  glance  what  proportion  of  the  cost 
of  a  piece  of  work  is  necessary  and  what  proportion  is  caused  by  wasted 
energy.  The  information  so  obtained  is  used  as  a  guide  to  prevent  waste  in 
the  future.  The  workman  is  encouraged  to  cooperate  through  the  use  of  a 
bonus  system  which  aims  to  give  the  highest  pay  to  the  most  efficient 
worker. 

These  methods  applied  in  certain  cases  have  produced  some  very  sur- 
prising and  satisfactory  results,  but  it  is  by  no  means  a  necessary  conclu- 
sion that  they  can  be  universally  applied  with  equal  success.  As  I  have 
already  indicated,  we  are  all  of  us  familiar  with  the  general  principles 
underlying  the  methods  of  the  efficiency  engineer  ;  many  of  us  make  fre- 
quent use  of  these  principles  in  the  conduct  of  our  business.  I  think 
I  am  correct  in  saying  that  in  the  business  with  which  I  am  connected  every 
general  principle  and  every  detail  method  which  has  been  suggested  by  the 
efficiency  engineer  has  been  used  at  one  time  or  another,  and  many  are 
in  use  to-day.  The  subject  is  then  a  familiar  one  to  all  of  us;  the  problem 
presented  is  not  the  adoption  of  something  entirely  new  ;  but  rather  the 
extension  to  every  detail  of  our  work  of  something  which  we  have  already 
tried. 

When  we  look  at  the  matter  in  this  light  we  naturally  ask  ourselves, 
is  it  in  all  cases  practical  and  desirable  to  extend  these  methods  to  all 
parts  of  our  work,  if  not,  under  what  circumstances  may  it  be  done  to  best 
advantage  ?  It  would  be  impractical  to  fully  answer  these  questions  within 
the  limits  of  a  short  paper,  but  we  may  suggest  very  briefly  a  few  factors 
which  seem  likely  to  limit  the  practical  working  field  of  the  efficiency 
engineer. 

When  we  consider  these  methods  of  careful  study  and  analysis,  and 
of  detail  instructions  to  workmen,  we  are  first  impressed  by  the  fact  that 
such  study  and  instruction  must  be  expensive.  It  must  be  performed  by 
men  of  considerable  ability,  and  consequently,  high  pay,  or  it  will  not 
be  effective.  These  men  moreover  must  have  assistants,  accountants  and 
others,  to  help  them  in  their  work.  Such  methods,  therefore,  can  only  be 
used  to  advantage  where  a  material  saving  can  be  made. 

If  a  piece  of  work  is  to  be  performed  but  once  we  may  plan,  in  a 
general  way,  the  manner  in  which  it  is  to  be  done,  but  should  we  attempt 
to  decide  before  starting  the  work  the  exact  manner  in  which  every 
detail  is  to  be  handled;  should  we  attempt  to  teach  each  workman  exactly 
how  each  motion  of  the  hand  and  body  may  best  be  made,  surely  the  cost 


HENKY  G.  BKADLEE,    "Jl  193 

of  planning  and  instruction  will  far  exceed  any  possible  saving  in  the 
cost  of  labor. 

If  the  work  is  to  be  repeated  several  times,  but  each  time  is  to  be  per- 
formed under  new  conditions,  the  same  difficulty  will  be  found.  Each  new 
condition  will  require  new  thought,  new  planning  and  new  instructions 
to  the  workmen.  If  the  work  is  to  be  repeated  a  dozen  times,  under  uni- 
form conditions,  instead  of  only  once,  we  may  profitably  carry  our  pre- 
liminary planning  into  greater  detail,  but  not  until  the  work  is  to  be  re- 
peated over  and  over  again  can  we  begin  to  consider  the  adoption  of  the 
full  program  of  the  efficiency  engineer. 

Here,  then,  we  have  one  of  the  first  conditions  of  success.  Scientific 
management  will  clearly  yield  its  best  results  when  the  labor  performed  con- 
sists of  a  continuous  repetition  of  some  definite  act  or  series  of  acts, 
and  when  the  work  is  carried  on  under  conditions  which  remain  practically 
uniform. 

For  a  similar  reason  we  may  expect  to  have  greatest  success  when 
we  have  a  large  number  of  workmen  doing  similar  work.  For  example, 
consider  two  factories,  each  employing  one  hundred  men.  Let  us  assume 
that  in  the  first  each  man  is  doing  exactly  the  same  work  as  his  neighbor. 
In  the  second  the  work  of  no  two  men  is  exactly  alike.  In  the  first  case, 
any  planning  of  work  applied  immediately  to  all  workmen.  We  can  afford 
to  give  much  time  and  thought  to  each  detail  of  the  work  because  the 
slightest  saving  in  the  work  of  one  man  may  be  applied  to  all  and  multi- 
plied by  a  hundred  may  become  of  material  importance.  In  the  second 
case  each  man  must  receive  special  study  and  instruction.  The  cost  and 
difficulty  of  efficiency  methods  under  such  circumstances  may  easily  be 
prohibitive. 

Our  second  important  factor,  then,  is  that  the  work  of  the  different  em- 
ployees shall  be  reasonably  uniform  in  character  and  not  extremely  diver- 
sified. 

Next  we  may  consider  the  territory  covered  by  the  work  of  any  in- 
dustrial organization.  Imagine  a  factory  employing  a  thousand  men  under 
a  single  roof.  Then  imagine  an  industry  employing  an  equal  number  of 
men  distributed  through  forty  different  cities,  an  average  of  twenty-five 
men  in  each  city.  Can  there  be  any  doubt  that  the  introduction  of  the 
methods  of  scientific  efficiency  would  be  fraught  with  a  hundred  difficulties 
in  the  second  case  for  every  one  in  the  first?  This  is  by  no  means  an 
imaginary  condition.  In  these  days  of  rapid  communication  and  travel 
many  industries  are  forced  to  extend  their  activites  over  very  great  areas. 
The  steam,  railroads  are  a  typical  example  of  such  an  industry.  The 


194  LIMITATIONS  OF  SCIENTIFIC  EFFICIENCY 

largest  system  in  the  country,  that  of  the  Union  &  Southern  Pacific  'Kail- 
roads,  has  80,000  employees  spread  over  18,000  miles  of  track  and  located  in 
branch  offices  in  most  of  the  principal  cities  of  the  country. 

The  effect  of  extended  area  on  management  methods  may  be  clearly 
traced  in  the  types  of  railroad  organization  in  England  and  in  the  United 
States.  In  England  distances  are  comparatively  short,  and  a  departmental 
or  functional  type  of  organization  is  in  common  use.  In  the  United  States 
a  divisional  type  of  organization  is  almost  universal.  Under  the  English 
type  of  organization  division  of  duties  and  responsibilities  is  based  on  the 
character  of  the  work  to  be  performed.  Under  the  United  States  type  the 
organization  is  separated  into  divisions,  each  division  having  charge  of  a  sec- 
tion of  the  road,  averaging  perhaps  350  miles  in  length.  In  each  division 
the  division  superintendent  has  charge  of  all  work  carried  on.  The  English 
type  follows  more  nearly  the  methods  of  the  efficiency  engineer,  and, 
applied  to  a  small  system,  is  probably  productive  of  greater  detailed  opera- 
ting economy.  The  United  States  type  gives  the  executive  officers  of  the 
company  a  stronger  and  more  direct  control  over  their  employees.  It  also 
results  in  prompter  action  in  regular  operation  and  in  emergencies,  and 
these  advantages,  in  a  country  of  long  distances,  are  thought  to  much  more 
than  outweigh  any  slight  losses  in  economy. 

Here,  then,  we  have  a  third  limitation.  The  extent  of  territory  which  a 
business  covers  may  make  it  difficult,  or  entirely  impracticable,  to  use  the 
methods  which  give  greatest  success  when  applied  to  a  group  of  men 
working  in  a  single  building. 

Where,  then,  shall  we  look  for  work  to  which  efficiency  methods  may 
be  successfully  applied?  Where  can  we  find  a  considerable  number  of 
men,  located  near  together,  preferably  in  a  single  building,  all  doing  the 
same  kind  of  work  under  conditions  which  remain  practically  uniform, 
and  the  work  consisting  of  a  continued  repetition  of  some  definite  act 
or  series  of  acts?  Work  of  this  character  will  presumably  be  found  in 
certain  mills,  factories  and  shops  and  in  some  special  departments  of 
other  industries.  These  are  the  places  where  we  may  expect  the  efficiency 
engineer  to  meet  with  the  greatest  success,  and  if  we  may  judge  from  the 
examples  quoted  by  the  efficiency  engineers  it  is  in  just  such  places  and 
under  such  conditions  that  the  best  results  have  so  far  been  secured. 

But  this  is  only  one  side  of  our  problem.  As  we  study  it  further  we 
discover  that  even  where  conditions  are  favorable  to  efficiency  methods  we 
still  find  limitations  which  will  prevent  their  adoption. 

Low  cost  of  operation  or  of  manufacture,  is,  after  all,  only  one  factor 
out  of  many  to  be  considered  in  measuring  industrial  efficiency.  It  fre- 


HENKY  G.  BKADLEE,   '91  195 

quently  happens  that  the  lowest  cost  can  be  secured  only  through  sacrificing 
other  and  more  important  factors.  This  we  have  already  mentioned  in  con- 
nection with  steam  railroad  organization.  Let  us  consider  some  other 
examples. 

A  majority  of  our  countrymen  believe  in  a  tariff  to  protect  home  indus- 
tries when  the  cost  of  manufacture  at  home  is  greater  than  that  abroad. 
They  approve  the  tariff  because  they  believe  that  there  are  advantages 
from  diversified  business  which  more  than  offset  any  increased  price 
of  manufactured  goods. 

We  pass  building  and  factory  laws  which  continually  increase  the  cost 
of  construction  and  manufacture.  We  do  this  because  we  believe  that  cost 
should  be  subordinated  to  public  welfare,  health  and  safety. 

We  use  a  special  delivery  stamp,  send  a  telegram  in  place  of  a  letter, 
or  ship  merchandise  by  express  instead  of  freight  because  saving  in  time 
is  more  important  than  saving  in  expense,  or  because  there  are  advantages 
in  extending  our  business  over  a  considerable  area  and  this  can  only  be 
done  by  using  these  methods. 

The  steam  railroads  increase  their  operating  costs  per  ton  mile  by 
operating  express  service.  By  doing  this  they  have  helped  to  build  up 
industries  which  could  not  otherwise  exist.  We  are  glad  to  pay  this 
extra  cost  so  that  we  may  no  longer  be  dependent  on  a  local  supply  of  fruits 
and  other  perishable  goods. 

In  construction  work  we  frequently  adopt  methods  which  might  be 
considered  extravagant  if  we  overlooked  the  advantages  which  come  from 
completion  of  the  work  by  a  certain  date.  Delay  in  completion  is  often 
far  more  serious  than  quite  a  considerable  increase  in  cost  of  the  work. 

The  spirit  which  runs  through  an  organization — its  esprit  de  corps 
— is  an  important  factor  in  its  success  or  failure.  A  superintendent  or 
foreman  who  has  the  faculty  of  keeping  his  men  always  happy  and  con- 
tented, even  though  he  is,  at  times,  somewhat  extravagant,  may  be  more 
valuable  and  more  truly  efficient  than  another  who  is  able  to  get  a  little 
more  work  out  of  his  men  but  who  keeps  them  continually  growling  and 
grumbling  against  the  business  and  their  employer. 

An  electric  light  company  will  spend  a  large  amount  of  money  to 
purchase  and  maintain  a  storage  battery  solely  to  prevent  momentary  inter- 
ruptions to  service.  Continuity  of  service,  even  at  increased  cost,  is 
necessary  to  retain  public  good-will  and  patronage. 

It  is  often  more  economical  for  a  street  railway  to  attach  trailers  to  its 
regular  cars  to  handle  rush  hour  business  than  to  operate  additional  motor 
cars.  The  public  unfortunately  do  not  like  trailers  and,  here  again  the 


196  LIMITATIONS  OF  SCIENTIFIC  EFFICIENCY 

railway  decides  that  public  good- will  is  more  important  than  a  slight  saving 
in  expense. 

In  these  few  examples  we  see  that  diversified  industries,  public  health, 
safety  and  welfare,  speed  of  action,  time  of  completion,  esprit  de  corps, 
quality  and  quantity  of  service,  public  good-will  and  patronage  ;  all  these 
and  many  others  enter  into  the  measurement  of  success  and  efficiency. 

Then,  again,  we  very  often  find  that  when  we  attempt  to  increase 
economy  in  one  detail  of  operation  we  decrease  it  in  another.  When  a 
man  has  only  one  simple  duty  to  perform,  and  is  able  to  perform  this  with- 
out reference  to  the  acts  of  any  of  his  fellow  workmen,  no  chance  for  con- 
flict occurs.  But  this  condition  very  seldom  exists.  Under  ordinary  circum- 
stances, a  man  has  more  than  one  thing  to  do,  and  his  work  is  dependent, 
to  some  extent,  at  least,  on  the  work  of  others.  It  is,  therefore,  impracti- 
cable to  consider  the  work  of  any  one  man  or  department  by  itself.  Each 
must  be  considered  in  its  mutual  relations  to  the  others.  We  must  balance 
the  gain  in  one  direction  against  the  loss  in  another,  and  the  maximum 
efficiency  of  the  organization,  as  a  whole,  will  very  often  be  obtained  when 
some  details  of  operation,  considered  simply  by  themselves,  are  not  being 
carried  on  with  greatest  possible  economy. 

Let  us  consider  one  or  two  cases  which  will  illustrate  what  I  have  in 
mind.  We  may  take  one  qf  these  from  the  very  methods  advocated  by 
the  efficiency  engineer. 

One  of  the  first  steps  taken  by  such  an  engineer  is  to  establish  an 
elaborate  system  of  cost  accounting  ;  a  second  step  is  to  increase  the 
number  of  supervisors  and  specialists  employed  to  oversee  and  direct  the 
work  of  the  laborers.  This  increased  cost  is  deliberately  and  intentionally 
incurred  for  the  purpose  of  saving  *&  greater  amount  in  other  items  of 
expense.  If  we  should  consider  the  accounting  department  by  itself  with- 
out reference  to  the  rest  of  the  business,  or  if  we  should  simply  compare 
the  number  of  supervisors  and  specialists  with  those  employed  by  some 
other  concern  doing  a  similar  business,  we  might  establish  a  very  good  case 
to  prove  that  the  efficiency  engineer  is  most  extravagant  and  uneconomical. 

If  we  are  to  be  fair  and  just  to  the  engineer  we  must  consider  the 
results  of  his  work  as  a  whole  and  not  condemn  him  because  he  has  increased 
expenses  in  certain  departments. 

A  second  very  simple  case  will  illustrate  how  efficiency  in  one  direction 
may  conflict  with  efficiency  in  another.  The  crew  on  a  locomotive  have 
three  duties,  first,  safety  of  the  train  and  its  contents,  second,  the  main- 
tenance of  schedules,  and  third,  operation  of  the  locomotive  at  the  lowest 
possible  cost.  Let  us  suppose  the  railroad  is  making  a  special  effort  to 


HENBY  G.  BKADLEE,    '91  197 

improve  fuel  economy.  The  locomotive  crew  become  very  much  inter- 
ested in  the  matter  and  the  first  year  they  succeed  in  saving  several  hundred 
dollars  worth  of  coal.  The  second  year  they  decide  to  do  even  better,  but 
one  day  when  they  are  trying  to  make  a  particularly  good  coal  record  they 
run  by  a  signal,  wreck  the  train  and  kill  a  dozen  passengers.  How  shall 
we  measure  efficiency  in  this  case?  Coal  efficiency  is  high,  accident  effici- 
ency is  low  ;  the  two  are  always  somewhat  in  conflict.  It  would  have 
been  much  better  for  this  road  to  have  burned  a  little  more  coal  and  avoided 
the  accident. 

It  has,  I  think,  always  been  recognized  that  there  is  an  element  of 
danger  in  fixing  one's  attention  too  closely  on  detail  economies.  We  have 
all  heard  of  the  man  who  was  penny  wise  and  pound  foolish.  We  are  also 
familiar  with  the  man  who  saved  at  the  spigot  while  he  lost  at  the  bung- 
ho]e.  I  once  knew  very  well  the  manager  of  an  electric  lighting  company 
who  directed  his  buisiness  with  the  greatest  economy.  I  have  frequently 
heard  him  say  that  he  would  much  rather  save  a  dollar  in  operating 
expenses  than  secure  a  dollar  of  new  business,  because  when  he  saved  a 
dollar  in  expenses  he  saved  the  whole  dollar,  but,  when  he  obtained  a  dollar 
from  new  business  he  had  to  spend  half  of  it  in  serving  the  customer. 
In  due  course  of  time  this  manager  resigned  and  a  new  man  was  appointed 
in  his  place.  The  new  manager  was  not  very  economical,  but  he  was  a 
hustler  for  new  business  and  he  kept  in  very  close  touch  with  his  customers. 
It  is  interesting  to  see  what  happened.  The  business  immediately  began 
to  grow  and  increased  very  rapidly.  The  public  received  more  and  better 
service  at  slightly  lower  rates.  The  dividends  of  the  company  increased, 
but  the  cost  of  operation  per  kilowatt  hour  increased  also.  Measured  by 
operating  costs  only,  the  efficiency  was  less  than  under  the  old  manager,  but, 
the  efficiency  of  the  business,  as  a  whole,  was  wonderfully  increased. 

It  may  naturally  be  asked,  why  not  get  a  manager  who  will  push  the 
development  of  the  business,  keep  the  public  satisfied,  maintain  a  high 
quality  of  service,  and,  at  the  same  time,  direct  his  organization  and  busi- 
ness along  the  lines  of  maximum  economy?  There  is  no  doubt  that  we 
would  like  to  obtain  men  of  this  kind.  But,  unfortunately,  they  are  few  and 
far  between.  The  perfect  man  has  not  yet  been  born. 

This  brings  us  to  another  very  important  limitation  in  the  introduc- 
tion of  efficiency  methods.  Human  nature  must  surely  be  taken  into 
account.  No  two  men  are  exactly  alike.  One  man  is  naturally  system- 
atic, he  plans  out  all  his  work  with  great  care,  decides  exactly  what  he 
wishes  to  accomplish,  and  then  works  steadily  along  the  lines  which  he  has 
laid  down  toward  the  objective  point.  Another  man  is  a  pure  opportunist. 


198  LIMITATIONS  OF  SCIENTIFIC  EFFICIENCY 

He,  too,  has  a  definite  object  in  view,  but  lie  continually  varies  his  plans 
and  methods  to  meet  new  or  changed  conditions  as  these  arise.  The  ten- 
dency of  the  first  man  will  be  to  go  through  or  over  any  obstacle  he  meets. 
The  second  man  will  follow  the  path  of  least  resistance  and  if  he  finds  an 
obstacle  in  his  way  will  be  more  likely  to  go  around  than  attempt  to  over- 
come it.  The  first  man  will  reach  his  decisions  slowly  and  after  giving 
careful  consideration  to  all  sides  of  the  question.  The  second  man  will 
decide  quickly,  often  apparently  by  intuition  rather  than  by  any  definite 
process  of  reasoning. 

In  our  modern  business  world  we  find  many  men  of  each  of  these 
types  with  others  graded  all  the  way  between.  The  careful,  methodical 
man  will  usually  conduct  his  business  more  economically  than  the  oppor- 
tunist, and  we  will  probably  find  him  much  more  ready  to  welcome  the 
methods  of  the  efficiency  engineer. 

The  opportunist  may  be  somewhat  less  economical,  but  it  by  no 
means  follows  that  he  will  be  less  efficient  if  the  results  which  he  accom- 
plishes are  considered  as  a  whole.  On  the  contrary  the  leaders  of  industry, 
the  men  who  do  most  to  develop  natural  resources  and  industrial  prosperity, 
are  very  frequently  of  this  type.  They  are  likely  to  reject  the  methods  of 
the  efficiency  engineer  not  from  any  prejudice  or  animosity  but  because 
such  methods  do  not  come  natural  to  them.  They  believe  that  they  can 
secure  the  best  results  in  other  ways.  Anyone  who  has  been  familiar  with 
the  work  of  a  large  organization  of  men  can  hardly  fail  to  have  seen  the  un- 
fortunate results  which  come  from  attempting  to  force  men  to  work  in 
ways  which  are  to  them  artificial  and  unnatural.  Personality  is  a  factor 
which  cannot  safely  be  neglected.  It  has  never  been  possible  in  the  past, 
and  probably  never  will  be  possible  in  the  future,  to  lay  down  one  rule  or 
method  by  which  all  men  shall  work. 

I  have  mentioned  only  a  few  of  the  limitations  of  scientific  efficiency, 
and  have  considered  these  very  briefly,  but  I  have  perhaps  said  enough  to 
show  that  the  problem  of  scientific  management  has  many  sides,  all  of  which 
are  worthy  of  careful  consideration.  When  we  have  given  these  limitations 
the  consideration  which  they  deserve  I  think  we  shall  reasonably  conclude 
that  we  are  not  likely  to  see  any  sudden  and  remarkable  increase  in  indus- 
trial efficiency. 

Permanent  progress  in  this  world  is,  after  all,  a  process  of  evolution, 
not  of  revolution.  Steadily  from  generation  to  generation,  we  have  in- 
creased our  efficiency  in  manufacture,  in  agriculture,  in  transportation, 
and  in  all  the  many  other  activities  which  form  a  part  of  our  complex 
civilization.  We  are  still  far  from  perfect  and  we  are  looking  forward  hope- 


HENRY  G.  BRADLEE,   >9l  199 

fully  to  a  similar  or  even  greater  progress  in  the  future.  In  this  progress 
the  principles  underlying  scientific  efficiency  will  perform  a  part,  as  they 
have  in  all  that  has  been  accomplished  in  the  past,  but  they  will  constitute 
only  one  factor  among  many  others,  a  factor  which  will  frequently  be  of 
comparatively  small  importance. 

The  efficiency  engineer  may  easily  prejudice  his  own  cause  by  making 
exaggerated  claims  and  statements  of  what  he  can  accomplish.  He  may 
discredit  his  own  profession  by  criticising  too  freely  the  work  and  methods  of 
others  or  by  rashly  condemning  the  efficiency  of  our  present  industrial 
organization.  In  spite  of  criticism,  even  the  railroads  work  some  marvels, 
as  may  be  illustrated  by  quoting  from  a  recent  address  by  Mr.  Frank 
Trumbull,  Chairman  of  the  Board  of  Directors  of  the  Chesapeake  &  Ohio 
Eailway  Company: 

If  you  should  write  a  letter  to  an  American  railroad  official,  his  cor- 
poration will  have  to  haul  a  ton  of  freight — 2,000  pounds  of  average 
freight,  coal,  ore,  silks,  ostrich  feathers  and  everything — for  more  than 
two  and  a  half  miles  to  get  money  enough  to  buy  a  postage  stamp  to  send 
you  an  answer. 


SCIENTIFIC  INDUSTRIAL  OPERATION 

TRACY  LYON,  '85, 

Assistant  to  First  Vice-President,  Westinghouse  Electric  and  Manufacturing  Co. 

A  great  deal  has  been  said  recently,  in  the  public  prints  and  otherwise, 
of  scientific  management,  and  the  railway  companies  of  this  country  have 
been  particularly  and  more  or  less  unjustly  criticised  for  the  lack  of  it.  I 
believe  that  the  public  at  large  has  rather  a  vague  idea  as  to  what  this 
"  scientific  management "  or  operation  consists  of  from  a  practical  point  of 
view,  and  while  its  principles  have  been  very  thoroughly  defined  by  various 
eminent  authorities,  an  effort  to  indicate  very  briefly  what  some  of  the 
accomplishment  in  this  direction  has  been,  may  be  cf  some  service  to  those 
who  have  not  given  the  matter  any  particular  study. 

There  is  a  new  schoolmaster  abroad,  or  perhaps  he  might  better  be 
called  a  doctor,  the  "  efficiency  engineer,"  who  stands  ready  to  apply  his 
medicine  in  the  most  scientific  though  sometimes  unpractical  manner. 
On  the  other  hand  some  successful  manufacturers  state  that  they  do  not 
want  college  men  in  their  service,  and  disdain  anything  that  smacks  of 
being  scientific  ;  much  as  a  "  born  "  salesman  might  smile  at  the  suggestion 
of  the  study  of  logic  and  psychology  as  an  aid  to  salesmanship,  even 
though  he  was  unconsciously  somewhat  of  an  adept  in  their  laws  him- 
self, and  might  profit  greatly  if  he  knew  more  about  them. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  scientific  management  is  not  a  new 
thing  in  itself,  although  its  application  in  a  thorough  manner  has  been 
thus  far  limited  to  a  comparatively  small  field.  There  seems  to  be  little 
doubt,  however,  but  that  it  can  be  applied  with  advantage  to  any  business, 
large  or  small,  the  only  difference  being  that,  in  the  case  of  very  large  in- 
dustries, years  may  be  required  to  accomplish  the  task  without  an  undue 
upsetting  of  conditions. 

Scientific  methods  involve  a  casting  aside  of  precedent  and  estab- 
lished usage,  the  determination  by  systematic  observation  and  analysis  of 
conditions  as  they  are,  not  as  they  seem  to  be,  and  the  application  of  the 
information  so  obtained  to  the  betterment  of  conditions  and  methods.  It  is 
natural  to  assume  that  when  a  man  has  worked  at  one  task  for  years,  whether 

200 


TKACY  LYON,   >85  201 

on  a  machine  tool  or  at  manual  labor  under  ordinarily  competent  super- 
vision, and  with  the  advantage  of  his  own  experience  and  trade  traditions,  he 
would  have  reached  a  degree  of  skill  and  speed  which  could  be  increased 
by  expert  instruction  in  only  a  small  degree.  It  has  been  demonstrated, 
however,  that  a  man  can  be  taught  to  double  his  output,  with  no  greater 
or  even  less  physical  exertion,  by  means  of  a  use  of  tools  and  a  distribution 
of  effort  which  he  unaided  would  be  incapable  of  evolving. 

What  the  labor  cost  of  an  individual  operation  should  be,  can  only  be 
determined  by  analytical  time  studies  in  which  personal  equation  and  past 
performances  are  disregarded  and  every  move  is  considered.  The  simple 
application  of  a  graphic  ammeter  to  a  motor-driven  machine  tool  may 
tell  a  surprising  story  of  repeated  delays  and  undeveloped  capacity.  It 
may  be  said  on  behalf  of  employers  that  such  studies  are  sometimes 
discouraged,  to  say  the  least,  by  the  workman  themselves. 

In  order  to  bring  out.  the  best  and  most  intelligent  effort  on  the  part  of 
most  men  it  is  necessary  to  establish  and  recognize  a  reasonable  measure 
of  their  efficiency,  and  to  develop  this  efficiency  to  its  highest  degree,  there 
must  exist  methods  of  compensation  which  will  offer  a  comparatively  large 
return  for  increased  individual  effort  ;  an  organization  which  will  effect- 
ively plan  in  advance  to  bring  together  at  the  right  time  all  informa- 
tion, tools  and  materials  required,  and  which  will  furnish  adequate  instruc- 
tion and  supervision  and  a  carefully  considered  arrangement  of  well 
equipped  appliances  and  machinery  which  will  bring  about  an  economical 
movement  of  the  work.  A  very  essential  function  of  such  an  organization 
is  to  create  a  feeling  of  copartnership  between  employer  and  workmen  and 
an  understanding  that  the  employer  is  not  trying  to  get  the  most  for  the 
least  wage,  but  is  willing  to  pay  liberally  for  increased  output  and  efficiency. 

Many  manufacturers  do  not  know  what  the  real  and  actual  cost  of 
their  product  is,  particularly  if  it  is  diversified,  because  of  a  lack  of  adequate 
cost  accounting  and  because  the  overhead  or  general  charges  are  not  properly 
distributed,  to  their  own  detriment  as  well  as  to  that  of  the  public.  This 
is  not  an  easy  question  to  solve,  but  there  are  scientific  methods  of  accom- 
plishing it.  I  believe  that  railroads  would  purchase  many  articles  they  now 
manufacture  if  they  had  a  truer  knowledge  of  their  shop  costs;  railroad 
shops  have  no  balance  sheets  to  face  and  do  not  necessarily  go  out  of  busi- 
ness if  they  are  not  making  money. 

On  one  railroad  with  whose  operations  I  was  familiar  some  years  ago, 
allowances  were  established  for  the  cost  of  repairs  to  equipment  per  ton 
mile,  or  mile  run,  for  the  cost  of  coal  used  by  locomotives  per  ton  mile,  for 
roundhouse  expenses  per  locomotive  handled,  for  terminal  expenses  per  car 


202  SCIENTIFIC  INDUSTRIAL  OPERATION 

switched,  for  freight  house  expenses  per  ton  of  freight  handled,  as  well 
as  for  many  other  expenses.  These  allowances  were  based  upon  a  more 
or  less  scientific  study  of  what  the  cost  should  be  and  each  foreman  and 
station  master  knew  every  day  whether  he  was  ahead  or  behind  the  game. 
In  the  same  way,  allowances  for  expenses  of  all  kinds  may  be  established 
in  any  business,  using  as  a  basis  percentages  of  direct  or  productive  labor, 
of  cost  of  product,  of  sales,  a  certain  amount  per  unit  produced  or  order 
handled,  or  whatever  other  basis  may  be  devised  to  appeal  to  the  man  who 
is  directly  responsible  for  the  expense  and  thus  place  before  him  a  constant 
record  of  the  amount  by  which  the  allowances  are  exceeded. 

Such  records  and  comparisons  may  perhaps  be  shown  most  clearly  if 
plotted  as  curves.  In  fact  I  do  not  believe  that  the  financial  and  operating 
details  of  any  large  and  complex  business  can  be  properly  appreciated  and 
studied  without  the  use  of  graphical  records.  By  their  means  a  field  can  be 
covered  and  comparisons  made  which  would  be  impossible  with  the  use  of 
figures  alone. 

Rather  an  interesting  development  has  taken  place  during  the  last  few 
years  in  the  organization  of  several  of  the  largest  manufacturing  plants  in 
this  country.  These  plants  have  a  highly  diversified  product  and  were 
originally  laid  out  to  centralize  the  manufacture  of  many  parts  in  highly 
specialized  "  feeder "  sections,  such  parts  being  delivered  as  required  to 
the  various  assembling  departments.  As  these  plants  grew  in  size  it 
became  increasingly  difficult  to  bring  about  a  uniformly  prompt  delivery 
of  parts  by  the  feeder  sections,  and  it  was  finally  determined  that  the  most 
economical  results  could  be  obtained  by  breaking  up  the  greater  number 
of  these  sections  and  distributing  their  tools  among  the  assembling  depart- 
ments, even  though  this  entailed  some  duplication  of  equipment  and  an 
abandonment  of  the  benefit  of  centralized  specialization.  This  step  toward 
the  departmentalization  of  very  large  shops  has  brought  out  the  advan- 
tages to  be  obtained  in  broadening  the  responsibility  of  the  heads  of  depart- 
ments and  in  holding  them  accountable  for  results.  A  further  step  has 
been  to  give  each  department  its  own  cost  accounting,  to  establish  a  system 
of  inter-departmental  accounts,  making  each  department  pay  for  all  labor, 
power,  heat,  light,  supplies  and  material  it  receives,  and  to  give  it  its  own 
engineering  staff.  This  industrial  development  is  parallel  to  the  division 
organization  of  some  railroads  and  to  the  organization  of  the  great  depart- 
ment stores. 

Scientific  methods  involve  the  use  of  the  most  expert  advice  obtain- 
able as  to  the  selection  and  handling  of  material,  the  choice  and  maintenance 
of  tools  and  equipment,  the  processes  of  manufacture,  and  the  elimina- 


TRACY  LYOtt,   '85  203 

tion  of  wastes.  The  possibilities  of  industrial  chemistry  are  unlimited.  I 
believe  that  many  manufacturers  fail  to  expend  as  much  as  they  should  for 
such  services,  or  for  an  efficient  staff,  for  lack  of  appreciation  of  the  very 
large  returns  which  may  be  obtained  thereby,  at  an  expense  which  is  very 
small  compared  with  the  amounts  involved. 

The  success  of  a  manufacturing  business  may  depend  upon  the  amount 
of  money  tied  up  in  stocks  of  raw  and  finished  materials,  and  the  regulation 
of  these  stocks  in  a  more  or  less  automatic  manner  is  one  of  the  large  prob- 
lems which  requires  scientific  treatment. 

Scientific  management  would  not  permit  factories  to  be  as  poorly 
lighted  as  many  are.  It  can  be  demonstrated  that  the  cost  of  furnishing 
the  very  best  light  obtainable  is  inconsiderable  in  comparison  with  the 
benefits  to  be  derived  in  an  improvement  in  the  quality  of  work  and 
increased  production.  The  same  thing  may  be  said  of  the  cost  of  improving 
sanitary  and  other  conditions  which  affect  the  comfort  and  health  of  the 
workman  and  of  maintaining  orderliness  and  cleanliness. 

Of  the  greatest  importance  to  the  industries  of  to-day  is  the  scientific 
training  and  education  of  young  men  to  fill  their  ranks,  not  only  in  the 
schools  but  also  within  the  manufactories  and  railways  themselves.  Much 
has  been  attempted  in  this  direction  during  recent  years  and  it  remains  to 
be  seen  what  the  results  will  be. 


THE  TREND  OF  COMMERCIAL  DEVELOPMENT  VIEWED 
FROM  THE  FINANCIAL  STANDPOINT. 

CHARLES  HAYDEN,  '90, 
Hayden,  Stone  &  Co.,  Boston. 

IN  the  effort  to  achieve  a  higher  efficiency,  in  the  direction  of  lower 
costs,  greater  profits,  and  the  elimination  of  waste,  the  corporate  form  of 
organization  is  being  employed  to  an  ever  increasing  extent.  Besides  the 
great  increase  in  the  number  of  corporations,  two  very  significant  develop- 
ments may  be  mentioned  :  (1)  The  huge  size  of  many  industrial  corpora- 
tions, and  (2)  the  tendency  to  the  formation  of  holding  corporations. 

The  problem  of  financing  these  great  organizations  has  been  satisfac- 
torily met  and  the  stocks  and  bonds  of  the  best  of  them  find  a  ready  market. 
Financiers,  however,  recognize  that  these  huge  combinations  of  capital  have 
powerfully  affected  the  public  and  created  an  apprehension  of  many  evils 
to  follow  in  their  wake.  Monopoly  is  abhorent  to  the  public  and  will  not 
be  tolerated. 

In  many  instances  these  huge  corporations  are  the  result  of  a  desire  to 
monopolize  some  commodity  or  public  function.  All  such  tendencies  have, 
however,  been  promptly  met  by  drastic  legislation,  and  as  a  rule  the  courts 
seem  to  uphold  such  legislation  when  it  is  called  into  question  on  the  score 
of  constitutionality. 

The  financier  is  in  a  position  to  study  this  question  of  regulation  and 
control  of  monopolistic  tendencies  on  the  part  of  corporations  quite  as  much 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  citizen  as  from  that  of  the  participant.  He  is 
keenly  interested  to  know  whether,  after  all,  these  huge  organizations  can 
possibly  attain  monoply,  or,  if  such  be  attained,  if  they  can  maintain  it. 
He  is  keenly  interested  also  to  know  if  the  advantages,  as  respects  savings 
from  various  causes,  which  are  claimed  on  behalf  of  these  organizations,  have 
actually  been  achieved. 

It  is  to  my  mind  very  doubtful  if  monoply  of  manufacturing  and 
commercial  industry,  even  if  attained  in  this  country,  could  have  been  main- 
tained for  any  considerable  time,  except  on  a  basis  of  minimum  profits 
and  consequently  great  service  to  the  public.  And  with  the  restraints  of 
legislation  it  now  seems  as  though  all  dreams  of  organization  must  be 


CHARLES  HAYDEN,   '90  205 

abandoned,  and  the  object  sought  along  the  old-fashioned  lines  of  increased 
efficiency  and  minimum  profits. 

I  doubt  if  any  financier  will  say,  without  reservation,  that  these  huge 
organizations  have  been,  on  the  whole,  as  efficient  as  expected.  In  mining 
and  in  manufacturing,  and  to  some  extent  in  transportation,  and  certainly 
in  commerce,  there  has  often-times  been,  on  the  part  of  the  large  concerns, 
a  lack  of  the  flexibility  which  is  displayed  by  the  small  and  compactly  organ- 
ized undertaking.  It  has  always  been  difficult  to  find  men  whose  minds 
have  developed  as  fast  as  the  vastness  of  the  problems  confronting  them. 

Many  instances  may  be  cited  of  large  combinations  that  have  been 
gradually  losing  their  control  of  the  business  which  they  at  one  time  had 
almost  succeeded  in  completely  monopolizing.  Of  course,  history  in  this 
respect  is  still  in  the  making,  and  perhaps  no  facts  of  a  conclusive  nature 
can  be  cited.  There  is  the  greatest  satisfaction  to  be  found  in  this  ability 
of  a  competitor  to  come  into  a  field  elaborately  and  powerfully  organized, 
and  establish  himself  anew  in  the  business  on  a  profitable  basis. 

That  there  have  been  decided  advantages  in  the  large  organization 
of  industry  cannot  be  denied.  Principally  among  these  I  may  note  the 
advantage  of  locality.  That  expenses  of  administration  have  been  ma- 
terially lowered  may  be  questioned;  that  the  incentive  which  goes  with 
individual  ownership  and  control  is  lacking  in  many  of  the  larger  organiza- 
tions is  painfully  evident  from  time  to  time ;  that  the  expected  advantages 
of  purchasing  and  selling  have  materialized  to  any  great  extent  may  be 
questioned  because  of  the  rapid  evolution  in  size  of  the  individual  competitor 
of  these  organizations. 

That  these  great  corporations  are  here  to  stay  for  a  long  time, 
may  not  be  questioned.  Some  will  undoubtedly  disintegrate  under  the 
stress  of  severe  competition.  It  may  be  confidently  believed  that  only 
those  will  permanently  endure  which  have  the  guidance  and  direction  of 
the  largest  minds,  who  will  perceive  that  the  only  foundation  for  such 
permanence  and  ability  is  to  be  found  in  the  highest  efficiency  and  in  a 
service  to  the  public  through  reduced  costs  and  a  minimum  margin  of 
profit.  A  corporation  operated  on  such  lines,  regardless  of  its  size,  is 
not  apt  to  be  feared  by  the  public,  especially  when  our  laws  contain  suita- 
ble and  sane  provision  for  the  restraint  of  any  tendency  to  utilize  its  strength 
unduly. 

Eeverting  to  the  second  development  to  which  I  first  called  attention, 
namely,  the  early  disappearance  of  the  trust  form  of  organization  and  the 
indications  that  the  holding  companies  are  to  follow  its  steps,  it  is  not 
difficult  to  see  why  the  public  has  taken  such  a  hostile  attitude  to  this  form 


206  TREND  OF  COMMERCIAL  DEVELOPMENT 

of  organization.  The  corporation  is  created  under  laws  established  by  the 
public,  and  for  certain  well  defined  purposes  and  with  restricted  rights. 
It  is  comparatively  easy  to  hold  to  strict  account  the  corporation  which  is 
operating  in  accordance  with  the  laws  of  its  being,  and  one  not  compli- 
cated by  association  with  numerous  other  corporations  organized  for 
totally  different  purposes.  The  public  has  felt,  and  perhaps  rightly,  that 
it  could  much  more  satisfactorily  deal  with  the  shareholder  of  a  corporation 
organized  for  specific  purposes  and  with  well  defined  rights  and  privi- 
leges, than  it  could  with  the  shareholder  of  a  corporation  removed  by  one 
stage  through  the  interposition  of  a  holding  company.  Moreover,  it  has 
been  generally  felt  that  in  no  way  could  monoply  be  so  quickly  and  easily 
achieved  as  through  the  development  of  the  trust  and  holding  corporation. 
The  financial  machinery  of  such  organizations  is  comparatively  simple. 
But  as  we  have  seen  the  trust  disappear  in  many  cases,  so  now  we  find  that 
the  holding  corporation,  which  attempted  to  weld  together  two  of  our  great 
systems  of  railroads,  has  been  found  obnoxious  to  the  public,  and  has  been 
liquidated  ;  we  find  that,  without  litigation,  some  far-sighted  financiers  and 
captains  of  industry  have  already  gone  far  in  the  liquidation  of  the  hold- 
ing company  principle  in  a  great  mining  business,' and  we  see  in  many 
directions  a  recognition  of  the  principle  that  the  holding  corporation  is  not 
necessary  for  any  proper  business  development.  And  it  may,  therefore, 
well  be  that  within  a  few  years,  as  I  have  already  indicated,  this  particular 
feature  of  our  business  life  will  have  passed  into  history. 

The  financial  and  business  man,  in  almost  every  case,  takes  a  national 
rather  than  a  local  view  of  his  business  problem,  no  matter  what  its 
specific  nature.  He  will  not  be  confined  or  restricted  in  any  respect  by  state 
laws.  To-day  he  is  handicapped  and  harrassed  at  almost  every  turn  by 
lack  of  uniformity  of  state  law.  Therefore,  as  time  goes  by,  the  financier 
believes  that  problems  of  legislation  governing  the  aquisition  and  use  of 
property  in  all  its  various  forms,  must  be  solved  to  an  ever  greater  extent 
by  our  national  legislative  bodies.  And  who  can  doubt  that  in  the  national 
legislature  these  problems  will  receive  the  attention  of  our  broadest  minded 
men,  with  the  result  that  both  the  stockholding  ownership  of  industry  and 
the  consuming  public  will  alike  be  benefited. 


PROFITABLE  ETHICS 

DAVID  VAN  ALSTYNE,  '86 
Vice-President,  Allis-Chalmers  Co.,  Milwaukee,  Wis. 

IN  the  present  organization  of  society  it  is  inevitable  that  money-getting 
shall  be  primarily  our  inspiration,  and  indeed  it  is  doubtful  if  any  other 
motive  will  ever  be  practicable,  despite  the  Utopian  program  of  the  socialists 
who  are  looking  forward  to  the  time  when  the  love  of  achievement  will  be 
our  inspiration  and  the  getting  of  money  unnecessary. 

On  the  other  hand,  unrestricted  money-making,  like  any  other  dis- 
sipation overdone,  is  not  good  for  the  health  of  the  body  politic.  The 
chief  manifestation  of  the  disease  is  in  the  extremes  of  wealth  and  poverty, 
the  former  of  which  is  unnecessary  and  the  latter  ethically  and  therefore 
morally  wrong.  Because  poverty  is  wrong  it  will  not  be  permitted  to  con- 
tinue always. 

However  impracticable  the  program  of  Socialism  may  be,  it  seems  to 
me  that  we  are  drifting  toward  community  interest  and  government  control 
and  ownership  with  all  its  inefficiency  and  awkwardness,  and  will  continue 
to,  unless  the  employing  class,  which  is  the  money-making  class,  can  be 
made  to  realize  that  to  whatever  extent  its  money-making  is  detrimental  to 
the  community  as  a  whole,  it  is  simply  encouraging  the  spread  of  socialistic 
tendencies.  Sooner  or  later  organized  labor  will  find  politics  its  most 
effective  weapon  and  its  tendency  will  be  socialistic. 

Present  management  of  "  big  business  "  is  probably  not  much  more 
efficient  or  freer  from  evils  than  government  management,  but  the  possibili- 
ties of  individual  control  are  far  greater  than  those  of  community  control 
and  must  be  realized  if  we  are  to  escape  the  latter. 

Among  the  potent  factors  for  progress  in  our  social  organization  per- 
haps the  most  potent  are  the  employers  of  labor,  the  managers  of  men. 
The  power  of  the  church,  of  sociologists  and  philanthropists  to  bring  about 
needed  reform  is  insignificant  in  comparison  with  that  of  employers. 
Competition  forbids  employers  doing  more  for  their  employees  than  their 
competitors;  rather  inclines  them  to  do  less,  so  that  if  reforms  are  to  be 
accomplished,  they  must  be  accompanied  by  greater  profits.  The  chief 
interest  the  employer  should  have  in  the  welfare  of  his  employees  fe  to  enable 

207 


208  PEOFITABLE  ETHICS 

them  to  earn  more  than  his  competitors'  employees  are  able  to  earn.  All 
other  interests  are  incidental  and  will  be  largely  taken  care  of  by  the  em- 
ployees themselves  if  they  have  the  money  with  which  to  do  it.  The  social 
reformer,  therefore,  who  would  effect  his  reforms  through  the  employer  is 
confronted  with  the  task  of  increasing  the  employees'  wages  and  at  the  same 
time  increasing  the  employer's  profits.  It  is  the  instinctive  desire  of  every 
employer  to  promote  the  welfare  of  his  employees  to  the  fullest  possible 
extent  as  long  as  it  does  not  interfere  with  his  profits.  His  philanthrophy 
and  good  will  do  not  extend  much  beyond  this. 

Maximum  output,  lowest  cost  of  production  and  highest  wages  can  be 
accomplished  through  the  accurate  knowledge  of  what  every  detail  of  the 
business  actually  is,  the  determination  of  what  it  should  be  and  the  bringing 
of  the  actual  to  the  standard  and  keeping  it  there.  Every  man  is  capable  of 
a  reasonable  maximum  output,  every  dollar  spent  is  capable  of  a  maximum 
return,  and  when  the  maximum  results  are  reached  the  efficiency  is  one 
hundred  per  cent.  The  higher  the  efficiency,  the  lower  the  unit  cost  and 
the  higher  wages  the  employer  can  afford  to  pay  as  compared  with  com- 
petitors. 

A  small  concern  managed  by  a  man  of  ability  is  likely  to  be  fairly 
efficient  because  most  of  the  details  can  be  kept  under  his  personal  observa- 
tion. As  the  business  grows  it  becomes  necessary  for  him  to  leave  it  more 
or  less  to  his  subordinates.  That  part  of  the  business  which  he  is  most  in- 
terested in  or  best  acquainted  with,  will  continue  fairly  efficient;  the  rest 
dropping  to  an  efficiency  commensurate  with  the  ability  of  those  immediately 
in  charge.  When  it  reaches  the  magnitude  of  our  large  railroads  and  in- 
dustrials, the  chief  executives  are  almost  wholly  out  of  touch  with  the  details 
of  the  business  and  with  the  individuals  of  the  rank  and  file. 

In  proportion  as  the  magnitude  of  the  business  increases,  the  im- 
portance of  the  personality  of  the  leader  decreases  and  that  of  the  system 
and  organization  through  which  he  exercises  his  personality  increases.  It 
is  through  a  systematic  control  of  employees  of  the  rank  and  file  that  he 
reduces  waste  of  time  and  material,  rather  than  through  his  personal  in- 
fluence over  his  immediate  subordinates.  The  measure  of  the  efficiency  of 
an  organization  is  the  extent  to  which  the  enthusiasm  of  the  individuals  in 
it  is  maintained  through  the  organization  and  not  through  the  personality 
of  the  man  at  the  head  of  it.  Few  men  in  positions  of  great  executive  re- 
sponsibility realize  how  little  influence  they  exert  on  the  business  under 
them.  It  is  not  a  serious  exaggeration  to  say  that  the  difference  between 
the  results  obtained  by  an  average  manager  and  one  who  is  known  as  an  ex- 
ceptionally able  man  is  not  material,  and  whether  the  result  be  good  or  bad 


DAVID  VAN  ALSTYNE,   '86  209 

is  largely  accidental  in  so  far  as  the  man  in  charge  is  concerned,  and  chiefly 
due  to  conditions  surrounding  the  business. 

The  conventional  manager  depends  upon  cut  and  dried  expedients 
rather  than  scientific  standards  or  ideals.  His  methods  are  based  more  on 
superficial  observation  and  haphazard  opinion  than  on  the  fundamental 
laws  governing  his  business.  Failure  to  accomplish  the  results  he  hopes 
for  is  not,  in  his  opinion,  a  criticism  of  his  methods  but  rather  calls  forth  his 
regret  at  the  passing  of  the  good  old  times  when  men  were  less  independent 
and  indifferent  or  conditions  otherwise  more  favorable. 

There  is  as  much  organizing  ability  now  as  there  ever  was,  perhaps 
more ;  but  through  the  consolidation  of  many  small  concerns  into  a  few 
large  ones,  great  responsibility  is  being  put  upon  a  few  men  who  are  not 
trained  to  it. 

Of  promoters  or  "  captains  of  industry,"  whose  farsightedness  indicates 
where  development  is  needed  and  where  money  can  be  made,  there  is  no 
lack;  but  managers  who  will  patiently  standardize  each  detail  in  the  opera- 
tion of  their  business  and  get  the  maximum  out  of  it,  are  exceedingly 
scarce.  The  jobs  have  grown  faster  than  the  men. 

Under  detail-control  management  as  little  as  possible  is  left  to  in- 
dividual judgment,  but  the  movements  of  every  man,  every  piece  of  material 
and  the  expenditure  of  every  dollar  are  guided  according  to  a  prearranged 
schedule.  If  the  objection  is  made  that  guiding  every  move  men  make, 
makes  machines  of  them,  destroys  their  initiative,  the  answer  is  that  there 
is  not  much  initiative  to  destroy  and  that  the  best  results  are  obtained  for 
both  employer  and  employee  when  men  are  worked  like  machines  and 
treated  like  men.  In  large  organizations  they  are  more  likely  to  be  treated 
like  machines  and  allowed  to  work  as  their  own  individual  fancy  dictates. 

Most  men  are  actuated  by  the  fear  of  losing  the  job  they  have  and  by  the 
hope  for  a  better  job  or  better  pay.  It  is  a  much  more  comfortable  feeling 
to  a  man  to  know  that  when  he  has  accomplished  definitely  prescribed  re- 
sults his  work  is  entirely  satisfactory,  rather  than  that,  no  matter  what  he 
accomplishes,  his  employer,  in  his  ignorance,  may  feel  that  he  ought  to 
have  done  more.  It  is  also  a  satisfaction  to  him  to  know  that  his  employer 
knows  beyond  question  he  is  as  good  as  or  better  than  his  fellow  workman. 
Moreover,  his  employer  has  a  feeling  of  security  in  that  he  is  able  to  deal 
justly  with  each  individual  through  his  records  rather  than  through  the 
more  or  less  prejudiced  opinions  of  subordinate  officials. 

Not  the  least  asset  created  by  the  management  which  has  accurate 
record  of  the  individual,  is  the  impression  made  upon  the  employee  that 
the  highest  officials  know  of  him  personally;  that  he  is  less  subject  to  the 


210  PEOFITABLE  ETHICS 

whims  and  prejudices  of  his  immediate  superior  and  that  he  is  recognized 
as  an  essential  part  of  the  organization,  which  arouses  an  enthusiasm  that 
cannot  be  too  highly  valued.  The  treatment  of  men  as  machines  by  dealing 
with  them  as  a  class  and  treating  good  and  bad  more  or  less  alike,  creates 
indifference  and  antagonism,  and  is  the  necessary  result  with  conventional 
management.  The  organization  created  by  this  control  of  details  is  of 
vastly  greater  importance  than  the  facilities  or  equipment.  The  good  or- 
ganization will  obtain  good  results  with  poor  equipment,  but  the  poor  or- 
ganization will  obtain  poor  results  no  matter  how  good  the  equipment 
may  be. 

Management  through  control  of  details  takes  advantage  of  the  fact 
that  few  men  know  how  to  work  efficiently  and  few  employers  know  definite- 
ly what  they  should  expect  of  their  employees  or  of  their  money  otherwise 
expended.  Some  employees  take  advantage  of  the  ignorance  of  their  em- 
ployers by  doing  even  less  than  they  know  they  could  do.  Time  and 
material  are  wasted  in  an  infinite  number  of  ways  and  the  efficiency  is  lim- 
ited by  the  personal  attention  those  who  are  in  charge  are  able  to  give  to 
the  comparatively  few  details  coming  under  their  notice.  Under  conven- 
tional management  the  foreman,  or  man  immediately  in  charge,  has  a  fair 
technical  knowledge  but  usually  little  organizing  ability.  The  multitude 
of  details  under  his  jurisdiction  receive  his  attention  a  few  at  a  time,  the 
others  drifting  along,  according  to  the  fancy  of  the  individuals  handling 
them.  The  few  details  receiving  the  attention  of  the  foreman  are  brought 
up  to  a  standard  proportionate  to  his  skill  and  knowledge,  and  begin  to 
drop  again  as  soon  as  he  turns  his  attention  to  some  of  the  other  details. 

The  result  is  to  confine  attention  chiefly  to  those  details  which  seem  of 
most  importance  and  to  let  the  rest  drift  along  as  they  will.  Hence,  average 
output  per  dollar  expended  for  labor  and  material  is  small  and  must  con- 
tinue so  as  long  as  so  much  depends  upon  the  efforts  of  one  man. 

Under  detail  management  an  investigation  of  the  possibilities  of  each 
operation  and  each  pound  or  foot  of  material  is  made  and  a  standard  set 
per  unit  of  output.  These  investigations  are  made  and  the  standards  set  by 
experts,  each  in  his  own  line.  The  value  of  establishing  a  standard  or 
measuring  stick  for  every  detail  cannot  be  overestimated.  It  not  only  gives 
the  manager  a  feeling  of  security  in  his  knowledge  as  to  exactly  how  his 
affairs  stand  and  as  to  what  needs  his  concentrated  attention,  but  also 
gives  his  subordinates  something  definite  to  work  for  and  arouses  their 
enthusiasm,  especially  when  extra  pay  is  given  for  reaching  the  standard. 
Men  do  not  object  to  hard  work  if  they  are  well  paid  and  contented,  and 
the  harder  they  work  within  reasonable  limits,  the  more  contented  they  are. 


DAVID  VAN  ALSTYNE,    '86  211 

It  is  not  sufficient  to  know  that  high  speed  steel  can  cut  four  times  as 
fast  as  carbon  steel  or  that  one  make  of  file  is  seven  times  as  good  as  an- 
other. It  is  of  much  greater  importance  to  know  that  high  speed  steel  does 
cut  four  times  as  fast  as  carbon  steel  and  that  the  good  file  does  all  that  it  is 
capable  of,  and  that  they  continue  to  do  so  as  long  as  they  are  used.  It  may 
seem  that  the  expense  of  such  details  will  not  be  justified  by  the  results,  but 
this  argument  is  not  used  very  long  after  the  effort  is  made.  The  results  are 
usually  beyond  expectation  and  the  returns  frequently  as  high  as  one 
thousand  per  cent  on  the  investment  necessary  to  obtain  them.  It  is  indeed 
probable  that  the  profits  of  the  average  railroad  or  manufacturing  concern 
can  be  increased  from  twenty-five  to  one  hundred  per  cent. 

Fundamental  principles  in  reaching  high  efficiency  are : 

1.  Records.    An  accurate  record  of  each  detail,  or  group  of  details,  of 
labor  and  material.    A  record  should  be  looked  upon  as  a  working  tool  and 
its  value  measured  by  its  capacity  for  producing  lower  cost  and  greater  out- 
put. 

2.  Standardized  conditions.      This    involves    putting    the    equipment 
into  such  condition  as  will  make  maximum  output  and  most  economical 
operation  possible. 

3.  Standardized  quality.     The  determination  of  a  standard  of  quality 
of  output  or  efficiency  of  service  below  which  it  is  not  permissible  to  go, 
is  necessary  because  efforts  to  reduce  cost  and  increase  output  may  result 
in  lowering  the  quality  unless  systematically  prevented. 

4.  To  find  out  what  is  to  be  done  and  how  to  do  it.    This  involves  strip- 
ping the  work  of  all  unnecessary  refinement,  finish,  material  and  opera- 
tions, bearing  in  mind  that  what  is  worth  doing  at  all  is  worth  doing  well 
enough  for  its  purpose  and  not  a  bit  better,  and  then  determining  the 
simplest  and  quickest  method  of  doing  it  with  the  facilities  at  hand  and 
establishing  a  time  or  cost  limit. 

5.  Written  instructions  as  to   the  standard  method  of  reaching  the 
required  time  or  cost.    Such  instructions  constitute  a  text  book  of  the  busi- 
ness and  are  not  to  be  deviated  from.     Employees  should  be  constantly 
checked  on  their  knowledge  and  close  observance  of  instructions;  otherwise 
the  instructions  are  rarely  fully  understood  and  are  quickly  forgotten  or 
ignored. 

6.  Constant  comparison  of  actual  performance  with  standard  to  see 
that  the  actual  reaches  the  standard  and  continues  there.    It  is  not  essential 
that  allowances,  standards  or  ideals  should  be  ultimate  or  represent  the 
highest  state  of  the  art;  in  fact  such  standards  may  appear  to  be  so  hope- 
lessly impossible  of  attainment  as  to  be  undesirable  for  present  purposes, 


212  rJiOriTABLE  ETHICS 

The  standard  should  be  set  as  far  ahead  of  present  practice  as  is  practicable. 
The  essential  thing  is  to  see  that  whatever  ideals  are  set,  are  reached,  and 
that,  as  long  as  they  are  not  changed,  there  shall  be  no  falling  away  from 
them. 

This  is  the  principle  which  is  most  neglected  by  managers  and  at 
which  usual  management  fails.  It  is  easy  to  establish  rules  and  standards, 
but  it  is  not  easy  to  have  them  lived  up  to  continuously.  Unless  the  organ- 
ization provides  for  comparing  in  detail  what  is  done  with  what  should,  be 
done,  with  mathematical  accuracy,  a  high  efficiency  cannot  be  maintained. 
It  is  a  common  experience  for  a  concern  to  reach  a  good  efficiency  during 
dull  business  and  to  drop  to  a  low  efficiency  during  heavy  business  because 
the  management  has  so  little  control  over  details. 

These  principles  are  a  decided  recognition  of  the  capacity  of  the  in- 
dividual and  may  be  considered  antagonistic  to  some  of  the  expressed  prin- 
ciples of  organized  labor. 

Restriction  of  output  (which  is  not  the  policy  of  organized  labor  but  is 
its  tendency),  opposition  to  piece-work  and  premium  or  bonus  systems  of 
paying  for  labor,  limitations  of  the  number  of  apprentices,  are  not  economic- 
ally correct,  and  nobody  realizes  it  more  than  the  more  intelligent  union 
men;  but  they  constitute  correct  policy  from  the  union  point  of  view  be- 
cause they  are  among  the  few  weapons  labor  has  with  which  to  fight  and 
defend  itself  against  aggressive  employers.  Under  usual  conditions  they 
are  necessary  to  the  existence  of  organized  labor.  So  long  as  employers 
consider  it  necessary  to  oppose  organized  labor,  just  so  long  these  weapons 
will  be  used,  to  the  detriment  of  the  employer. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  it  should  be  considered  safe  to  work  with  or- 
ganized labor,  they  soon  get  the  employer's  point  of  view  and  he  theirs. 
Each  sees  that  the  other  is  right  and  they  adjust  their  differences  by  making 
an  agreement.  Mr.  Gompers  rightly  says  that  it  is  necessary  for  labor  to 
deal  collectively  with  employers  on  account  of  the  great  difficulty  the  in- 
dividual has  in  getting  the  attention  of  those  highest  in  authority  in  large 
concerns. 

The  usual  form  of  trade  agreement  which  binds  the  employer  to  pay 
fixed  rates  per  hour,  day  or  week  and  the  employee  to  put  in  his  time  and 
produce  whatever  the  employer  is  able  to  get  out  of  him  is  economically 
wrong,  because  one-sided  and  indefinite.  Each  has  his  opinion  as  to  what 
constitutes  a  fair  day's  work,  which  the  employer  will  constantly  try  to  in- 
crease and  the  employee  tend  to  decrease.  What  one  employer  may  con- 
sider a  fair  output  may  be  too  little  for  another  employer  and  more  than 
required  by  a  third.  It  is  to  the  interest  of  both  employer  and  employee  to 


DAVID  VAN  ALSTYNE,    '86  213 

agree  upon  a  reasonable  time  for  each  operation,  so  that  each  may  know 
definitely  what  he  is  to  expect  from  the  other. 

To  whatever  extent  the  employer  is  liberal  in  his  treatment  of  men, 
they  will  usually  meet  him  half  way.  The  agreement  is  a  protection-to  the 
employer,  in  that  it  reduces  petty  injustices  on  the  part  of  minor  officials 
and  also  prevents  local  troubles  from  men  widely  distributed  but  bound  by 
the  same  agreement,  as  in  the  case  of  railroads.  A  large  percentage  of  the 
restrictions  which  unions  try  to  add  to  their  agreements  from  time  to  time 
are  efforts  to  check  abuses  by  minor  officials,  who  are  too  narrow  to  see 
any  but  their  own  side,  and  are  over-zealous  in  the  interest  of  their  em- 
ployers. Labor  has  learned  many  of  its  bad  tricks  from  employers  and  in 
using  them,  has  been  a  great  educator  of  employers  in  making  them  see  that 
there  are  two  sides  to  even  the  labor  question.  There  is  much  to  be  said, 
however,  in  justification  of  those  employers  who  refuse  to  deal  with  or- 
ganized labor  because  of  the  unscrupulous  methods  of  some  labor  leaders. 

Laboring  men  are  by  inheritance  and  training,  suspicious  of  employers 
and  inclined  to  take  a  sentimental  view,  to  brood  over  their  down-trodden 
condition.  Whenever  they  can  be  persuaded  to  take  a  business-like  view  of 
affairs,  to  determine  what  is  to  their  interest  and  whether  it  is  to  their 
ultimate  interest  to  consider  the  interest  of  the  employer,  they  at  once  be- 
come rational  and  there  is  no  difficulty  in  coming  to  terms  with  them. 

Whenever  the  employer  can  create  the  feeling  that  the  sole  object  of 
his  official  existence  is  to  get  the  most  out  of  his  employees  for  the  money 
invested  in  them,  and  that  he  realizes  this  can  be  done  only  with  the  best 
paid,  most  thoroughly  contented  employees,  he  has  won  his  point  and  need 
waste  no  further  effort  to  destroy  unionism.  He  will  find  that  he  has  accom- 
plished all  that  is  necessary  or  desirable  in  modifying  radical  unionism  and 
that  it  is  as  much  appreciated  by  employees  as  employers. 

During  the  recent  period  of  great  commercial  activity  many  complaints 
were  heard  of  the  difficulty  in  getting  skilled  men;  many  employers  claim- 
ing that  the  unions  were  making  men  indifferent  and  independent  and 
through  various  restrictions,  preventing  the  development  of  a  sufficient 
number  of  skilled  men  to  supply  the  demand.  I  am  inclined  to  think  that 
to  a  certain  extent  this  may  have  been  true  and  that  it  was  largely  the 
fault  of  the  employer  for  permitting  it.  The  influence  of  the  unions,  how- 
ever, in  this  direction  is  limited  and  only  indirectly  the  result  of  their 
efforts  to  better  their  conditions. 

The  chief  cause  of  the  scarcity  of  skilled  labor  is  the  extreme  fluctua- 
tions in  business,  creating  at  one  time  an  abnormal  demand  and  at  another 
throwing  both  skilled  and  unskilled  labor  out  of  work.  There  are  more 


214  PBOFITABLE  ETHICS 

skilled  men  and  there  is  skill  of  a  higher  order  than  ever  before ;  but  by  the 
nature  of  things  their  number  is  more  or  less  adjusted  to  the  average  de- 
mand. There  is  always  available  a  nucleus  of  these  good  men  who  have 
comparatively  steady  work  and  during  times  of  extreme  activity,  the  only 
men  available  are  those  who  spend  a  considerable  portion  of  their  time  in 
idleness.  In  times  of  great  activity  there  is  no  good  opportunity  to  train 
this  generally  unemployed  increment  and  in  dull  times  idleness  encourages 
laziness,  indifference  and  a  loss  of  the  little  skill  men  acquire  while  at 
work.  We  are  inconsistent  in  throwing  as  many  men  as  possible  out  of 
work  as  soon  as  business  begins  to  decline  and  then  complaining  that  they 
are  not  capable  of  the  highest  efficiency  when  they  are  employed. 

In  my  opinion  this  is  the  greatest  evil  for  which  our  present  social 
system  is  responsible  and  it  is  also  the  most  difficult  to  regulate.  Appren- 
ticeship, trade  schools  and  like  efforts  to  train  skilled  workmen,  are  all  good 
to  a  certain  degree,  but  their  influence  is  insignificent  as  compared  with  the 
influence  of  long  periods  of  enforced  idleness  to  which  the  laboring  class  is 
subjected.  It  is  important  to  develop  skilled  workmen,  but  it  is  of  much 
greater  importance  to  develop  loyal  American  citizens  who  are  interested 
in  promoting  the  welfare  of  the  State  and  consequently  that  of  the  employer. 

It  is  out  of  such  employees  that  the  employer  makes  the  greatest 
profits  in  the  end.  There  is  not  much  encouragement  for  a  man  who  spends 
a  considerable  portion  of  his  time  in  idleness  to  become  either  the  right 
kind  of  citizen  or  employee. 

This  ever-present  fear  of  being  thrown  out  of  work  makes  men  hold 
back  their  output  in  order  to  make  the  work  last  as  long  as  possible.  Aside 
from  the  inhumanity  of  periodically  depriving  a  considerable  percentage  of 
our  citizens  of  the  means  of  earning  a  living,  it  would  seem  good  business 
policy  in  the  long  run  for  employers  to  find  some  way  to  keep  a  large  per- 
centage of  their  employees  on  the  pay  roll  at  least  at  living  wages  during 
periods  of  dull  business,  whether  there  is  work  for  them  or  not;  and  it  is 
probable  that  a  great  deal  more  could  be  done  in  this  direction  than  is  done. 
It  is  to  be  hoped  that  some  day  it  may  be  found  practicable  for  the  law  to 
require  employers  to  take  care  of  a  certain  portion  of  their  idle  employees 
during  periods  of  depression,  and  the  government  to  give  employment  to 
the  rest  on  public  improvements. 

It  is  encouraging  to  note  the  number  of  concerns  which  are  introducing 
old  age  pensions,  profit-sharing,  etc.  It  is  to  the  pecuniary  interest  of  the 
employers  to  do  these  things  themselves  rather  than  to  wait  for  them  to  be 
done  by  the  government  with  its  inevitable  inefficiency. 

Every  large  employer  of  labor  can  afford  to  have  what  might  be  called  a 


DAVID  VAN  ALSTYNE,   '86  215 

"  sociological  department,"  whose  duty  it  would  be  to  look  to  the  welfare  of 
its  employees,,  so  long  as  it  is  not  done  in  a  patronizing  manner. .  Such  a 
department  should  keep  a  personal  record  of  each  employee,  consisting  of 
whatever  information  of  value  -is  obtainable ;  to  be  used  in  deciding  as  to 
desirability  as  an  employee,  eligibility  for  promotion,  instead  of  depending 
on  haphazard  opinions  which  are  usually  superficial  and  biased.  It  would 
also  keep  as  closely  in  touch  as  possible  with  employees  to  find  out  what 
secret  grievances  they  are  brooding  over,  due  to  brutal,  prejudiced  and 
partial  treatment  by  superiors ;  and  be  ready  to  lend  a  helping  hand  in  case 
of  misfortune,  sickness  or  death.  Apprenticeship,  pensions,  profit-sharing, 
prevention  of  accidents  and  hospital  service  might  also  properly  come  within 
the  jurisdiction  of  this  department. 

The  speculative  financial  influence  is  a  serious  obstacle  to  the  progress 
of  better  management,  and,  in  consequence,  to  its  own  interests.  Not  only 
does  it  not  understand  the  human  element  in  its  business,  which  is  the  im- 
portant element  with  a  large  employer  of  labor;  but  being  in  control,  it 
usually  dictates  a  narrow,  opportunist  sort  of  policy  based  on  superficial 
opinion  rather  than  scientific  investigation.  It  cannot  see  that  a  moderate 
investment  in  better  organization  and  management  will,  in  nine  cases  out 
of  ten,  save  a  large  investment  in  equipment,  besides  reducing  the  cost  of 
the  operation.  As  a  result,  executives,  no  matter  how  well  intentioned,  are 
afraid  to  depart  from  the  narrow  conventional  limits  prescribed;  so  that 
"  big  men"  are  not  developed  for  the  "  big  "  positions. 

Little  improvement  can  be  expected  until  the  average  board  of  directors 
takes  more  interest  in  the  business  it  directs  and  becomes  more  intimately 
acquainted  with  the  details.  It  would  seem  that  one  way  to  accomplish  this 
would  be  to  have  each  department  head  report  direct  to  the  board  instead  of 
through  the  president,  who  as  a  rule  is  a  specialist  in  only  one  department. 
It  would  also  seem  advisable  for  the  board  to  have  specialists  report  on  the 
efficient  operation  of  all  departments  in  a  similar  manner  as  chartered 
accountants  report  on  the  accounting  department.  For  those  who  have  the 
courage  to  break  away  from  some  of  the  old  traditions  and  conventional 
methods,  there  is  an  unlimited  field.  The  difficulties  are  great,  but  the  pos- 
sibilities are  greater.  The  results  are  conspicuously  good. 

Assuming  that  detail-control  will  produce  and  maintain  maximum 
output,  better  quality,  lowest  cost,  higher  wages  and  contented  employees, 
and  that,  as  a  consequence,  it  meets  with  the  approval  and  support  of  em- 
ployers, what  results  may  we  be  justified  in  looking  for  toward  an  ameliora- 
tion of  some  of  the  social  evils  which  exist  to-day,  chief  of  which  are  the 
extremes  of  wealth  and  poverty?  It  is  true  that  when  all  concerns  in  the 


216  PROFITABLE  ETHICS 

same  business  are  equally  well  managed,  no  one  of  them  will  have  any 
advantage  and  the  same  competitive  conditions  will  exist  as  before ;  but  the 
next  step  forward  will  be  from  a  higher  plane. 

Is  it  not  safe  to  conclude  that  those  employers  who  have  had  the  experi- 
ence and  the  profit  will  be  convinced  that  the  most  ethically  conducted  busi- 
ness is  the  most  profitable ;  that  business  ideals  must  be  ethical  ideals  ?  Will 
it  not  be  a  definite  and  concrete  way  of  getting  into  practical  use  those  theo- 
retical ideals  so  attentively  listened  to  on  Sundays  but  so  regularly  forgotten 
on  weeks  days  ?  Would  it  not  hasten  the  Utopian  condition  which  all  right- 
minded  men  believe  in  and  hope  for ;  namely,  that  every  man  who  is  willing 
to  work  is  entitled  to  a  living  and  that  no  man  is  entitled  to  so  much  that 
somebody  else  must  go  hungry  ? 


THE  NATUEAL  INCEEASE  IN  THE  EATIO  OF  BUEDEN  TO 
LABOE  IN  MODEEN  MANUFACTUEING  PEOCESSES. 

JAMES  B.  STAN  WOOD,  '75, 
Vice-President  and  Engineer,  The  Houston,  Stanwood  &  Gamble  Co.,  Cincinnati. 

IN  all  manufacturing  processes  in  the  determination  of  the  cost  of  the 
finished  article,  it  is  usual  to  divide  it  into  three  elements, — the  cost  of  the 
material  used,  the  cost  of  the  labor  that  can  be  charged  to  the  conversion  of 
this  material  into  the  finished  product,  and  the  amount  of  the  burden,  or 
overhead  expense.  This  burden  includes  the  cost  of  all  other  expenditures 
of  labor  and  material  necessary  for  carrying  on  the  processes  of  production, 
which  are  general  in  their  character,  and  which  cannot  be  charged  directly 
to  any  portion  of  the  actual  labor  or  material.  In  this  connection  the  cost 
of  selling,  the  product  should  not  be  neglected,  but  should  be  considered  a 
part  of  the  burden.  The  ratio  then  of  the  burden  to  the  direct  labor  or 
burden-labor  ratio  may  be  expressed  by  a  fraction  B/L  in  which  B  represents 
the  total  cost  of  the  burden  of  a  department  or  factory  for  a  unit  period  of 
time,  and  L  the  total  direct  labor  cost  of  the  same,  for  the  same  factory  or 
department,  for  the  same  unit  of  time. 

As  a  result  of  the  constant  improvement  in  machinery  and  processes,  or 
to  use  a  popular  phrase,  because  of  the  increase  in  "  labor-saving  devices,"  it 
can  be  stated  as  a  law  that  the  ratio  of  burden  to  labor  naturally  tends  to 
increase  from  year  to  year  or  period  to  period  as  industry  progresses. 

This  can  be  shown  by  an  illustration:  Let  the  material,  labor  and 
burden  in  a  given  process  be  equally  divided  so  that  each  has  a  unit  value  of 
2,  then  the  total  cost  is  2+2+2=6,  the  burden  labor  ratio  being  2/2=1.  If 
now  by  an  improved  machine,  or  by  an  improved  process  the  labor  is  cut  in 
half,  then  the  total  cost  becomes  2+1+2=5,  and  the  burden-labor  ratio  will 
be  2/1=2.  This  is  on  the  assumption  that  no  other  change  has  been  made 
than  that  of  cutting  the  labor  in  two.  Let  us  consider  a  different  set  of 
values,  in  which  the  material  is  assumed  to  be  2,  labor  12  and  burden  6. 
The  total  cost  then  becomes  2+12+6=20,  and  the  burden-labor  ratio  is 
6/12=1/2.  Suppose  that  an  improved  process  or  machine  now  reduces  the 
labor  from  12  to  3,  a  rather  uncommon  experience;  now  the  total  cost 

217 


218     NATUEAL  INCEEASE  IN  RATIO  OF  BUEDEN  TO  LABOB 

becomes  2+3+6—11,  and  the  burden-labor  ratio  is  6/3=2.  The  saving  in 
total  cost  is  45  per  cent,  but  the  burden-labor  ratio  is  increased  four-fold. 

In  many  cases  in  practice  the  saving  in  labor  as  outlined  in  these 
examples  is  brought  about  by  the  introduction  of  some  new  device  or 
machine  which  is  sold  generally  to  the  trade  so  that  it  is  open  to  all  manu- 
facturers to  secure  the  benefit  of  this  improvement,  but  it  also  usually  hap- 
pens that  the  competition  among  manufacturers  gives  most  of  this  benefit  to 
the  consumer,  and  after  a  short  period  all  the  manufacturers  are  practically 
on  the  same  basis,  using  the  same  grade  of  materials,  the  same  type  of  tools 
and  employing  labor  at  about  the  same  cost.  If  this  law  of  the  natural  in- 
crease of  burden-labor  ratio  is  not  recognized,  it  follows  that  manufacturers 
who  base  their  cost  estimates  on  previously  ascertained  burden-labor  ratios 
find  themselves  in  the  position  of  selling  their  goods  at  a  low  margin  of 
profit,  or  no  profit,  or  even  at  a  loss. 

The  two  examples  here  given  assume  that  the  total  burden  itself  does 
not  in  any  way  increase  or  decrease  absolutely ;  on  the  other  hand  in  many 
instances  where  improved  machines  or  appliances  are  employed  the  total 
burden  itself  actually  does  increase.  More  elaborate  machinery  calls  for 
greater  care  for  up-keep  and  for  a  greater  depreciation.  It  frequently  fol- 
lows that  although  the  net  cost  of  the  product  is  greatly  reduced  by  a  saving 
in  labor,  yet  this  entire  saving  of  labor  is  not  realized  on  account  of  an 
actual  increase  in  burden. 

A  prominent  manufacturer  recently  stated  to  the  writer  that  the  use  of 
"  high  speed  "  steel  greatly  increased  his  burden-labor  ratio  over  the  use  of 
the  older  steels.  This  of  course  is  due  to  the  reduction  in  labor  cost  which 
the  "high  speed"  steel  effected,  but  in  addition  the  increased  cost  of  this 
steel  and  the  increased  cost  in  the  up-keep  and  the  depreciation  of  machines 
required  to  use  this  steel,  also  increase  the  actual  burden;  the  net  manu- 
facturing cost,  however,  has  been  greatly  reduced  by  the  use  of  these  im- 
proved cutting  metals. 

The  reduction  in  the  labor  cost  of  an  article  as  shown  above  cheapens  it 
to  the  manufacturer,  and  ultimately  with  free  competition  among  the  manu- 
facturers, cheapens  it  to  the  consumer. 

The  usual  advantage  claimed  for  labor  saving  machines  to  the  manu- 
facturer lies  in  the  fact  that  they  increase  the  capacity  of  his  plant.  If  as 
in  the  last  rather  extreme  example  the  labor  cost  is  reduced  one-fourth  of 
what  it  originally  was,  it  means  that  one  man  or  one  machine  will  produce 
four  times  more  than  before  the  improvement  was  adopted.  The  result  of 
this  is  a  large  increase  in  plant  capacity  with  the  attending  necessity  of  find- 


JAMES  B.  STAN  WOOD,  "15  219 

ing  a  correspondingly  large  market  for  the  output.  When  the  reduced  cost 
of  production  gives  one  manufacturer  an  advantage  over  another,  he  secures 
his  market  by  taking  the  trade  away  from  the  other  who  may  be  less  favor- 
ably equipped.  When  on  the  other  hand  all  manufacturers  in  the  -same  line 
install  the  same  machinery  at  about  the  same  time,  and  by  competition  the 
price  is  reduced,  then  the  only  increase  in  market  can  come  about  by  reason 
of  the  reduced  cost  to  the  consumer.  In  some  cases  a  greater  demand  due  to 
the  decrease  in  the  cost  of  the  goods  tremendously  increases  the  volume  of 
business;  in  others  where  a  decrease  in  cost  does  not  easily  produce  an  in- 
crease in  demand,  the  burden  is  increased  in  the  effort  to  make  a  market. 

Man  has  been  called  the  "tool-using  animal."  This  is  not  entirely 
true.  A  spider  spins  a  web  which  is  his  tool  for  trapping  his  food,  the  bee 
makes  a  cell  in  which  to  store  his  honey,  and  the  beaver  builds  for  himself 
a  dam  and  waterproof  hut.  To-day  the  spider  spins  his  web  after  the  same 
patterns  he  used  thousands  of  years  ago,  the  bee  has  not  altered  the  construc- 
tion of  the  honeycomb,  the  beaver  uses  the  same  devices  for  cutting  down 
trees,  digging  up  earth  and  stones  and  plastering  his  masonry — the  burden- 
labor  ratio  has  remained  the  same. 

But  man  who,  in  the  beginning  had  but  few  implements,  and  these  of 
the  crudest  form,  has  during  the  process  of  his  marvelous  development  made 
his  tools  more  and  more  efficient  and  elaborate,  and  thereby  has  greatly 
increased  the  burden-labor  ratio. 

A  striking  example  of  this  extensive  and  elaborate  use  of  tools  is  found 
in  the  appliances  used  in  the  numerous  processes  of  the  entire  plant  which 
the  United  States  Steel  Corporation  has  in  operation  for  digging  the  iron-ore 
from  the  ground  in  Minnesota,  conveying  it  to  Gary,  Indiana,  and  making 
it  into  manufactured  steel  products,  such  as  rails,  structural  steel,  etc.  In 
this  continued  process  from  mother  earth  to  the  finished  product  very  little 
direct  labor  is  placed  on  the  material  in  the  entire  course  of  its  conversion. 
Everything  is  done  by  a  machine, — from  the  digging  of  the  ore,  its  trans- 
portation by  steam  through  the  lakes,  the  unloading,  and  the  feeding  of  the 
ore  to  the  furnace,  the  conversion  of  the  melted  metal  into  steel,  the  forma- 
tion of  a  billet,  and  the  rolling  of  the  billet  into  a  finished  product.  In  this 
case  the  actual  labor  falls  on  those  who  attend  the  machines.  This  includes 
of  course  the  sailors  and  crews  on  the  lakes,  operators  on  the  railroad  in 
Minnesota,  as  well  as  the  men  at  the  mines,  and  in  the  steel  plant  at  Gary. 

This  extensive  operation  possesses  a  tremendous  burden  in  relation  to 
the  direct  labor  expended,  and  yet  as  is  well  known  the  entire  process  is  one 
embodying  the  highest  economy  of  production. 


220    NATURAL  INCREASE  IN  RATIO  OF  BURDEN  TO  LABOR 

In  conclusion  it  may  properly  be  suggested  that  a  scientific  study  of 
the  cost  of  burden  is  an  undertaking  that  promises  the  attainment  of  new 
economics;  for  great  reductions  are  possible  in  the  cost  of  administration, 
and  operation  of  buying  and  selling,,  and  in  the  maintenance  and  deprecia- 
tion of  plant.  Thus  in  striving  for  more  efficient  production,  burden  saving 
methods  are  fully  as  valuable  as  labor  saving  devices. 


THE   SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT   OF  AMERICAN  RAILWAYS. 

By  S.  M.  FELTON,  '73 
President,  Chicago  Great  Western  R.  R.,  Chicago,  111. 

THE  evolution  of  the  American  railway  during  the  past  sixty  years 
would  seem  to  best  illustrate  the  subject  of  this  paper. 

The  first  and  most  important  part  in  the  construction  of  the  railway, 
and  the  one  which  fixes  its  physical  character  as  relating  to  alignment  and 
grades,  is  the  accurate  determination  of  the  center  line.  Upon  its  location 
may  depend  the  success  or  failure  of  its  future  operations. 

With  the  light  volume  of  traffic  offering  and  the  primitive  methods 
employed  in  early  railway  construction,  the  lines  were  built  with  heavy 
grades  and  sharp  curvature.  As  the  business  of  the  roads  increased  and  the 
rates  decreased,  a  reduction  in  the  cost  of  operation  became  necessary. 
Lines  which  had  been  constructed  with  grades  of  fifty-three  feet  and  over 
per  mile  were  practically  rebuilt,  the  grades  in  many  cases  being  reduced  to 
a  maximum  of  sixteen  feet  per  mile. 

Originally  the  width  of  the  roadbed  was  but  fourteen  feet  and  little 
or  no  ballast  was  used.  In  modern  construction  the  width  of  the  roadbed 
on  single-track  lines  is  twenty  feet,  and  ballast  of  from  twelve  to  twenty-four 
inches  under  ties  is  necessary  to  properly  maintain  the  track  under  heavy 
traffic. 

For  many  years  it  was  possible  to  secure  ties  from  the  forests  along  the 
lines  of  most  railways,  but  with  their  rapid  depletion  and  the  heavy  demand 
for  timber  in  all  classes  of  industry  it  has  become  necessary  to  subject  that 
used  for  ties  and  railway  structures  to  chemical  treatment  to  prolong  its 
life.  First-class  hardwood  ties,  which  in  former  years  could  be  secured  at 
from  25  to  30  cents  each,  are  no  longer  procurable  and  it  is  neccessary  to  use 
timber  of  grades  heretofore  rejected  and  treat  it,  which  makes  their  present 
cost  from  75  cents  to  $1.00  each.  With  this  treatment  ties  last  from  fifteen 
to  twenty  years,  or  from  two  to  three  times  the  life  of  untreated  timber. 

The  ballast,  where  used  at  all  in  former  years,  was  principally  material 
that  could  be  secured  at  convenient  points  on  the  railway,  and  its  character 
was  often  inferior.  In  modern  practice  ballast  is  selected  as  to  quality,  is 
carefully  crushed  or  screened,  removing  all  dirt  and  dust,  and  placed  under 

22X 


222 


SCIENTIFIC   MANAGEMENT    OF   AMERICAN   RAILWAYS 


ties  in  such  manner  and  quantities  as  is  necessary  to  provide  proper  drainage 
and  sustain  and  properly  distribute  to  the  roadbed,  loads  imposed  by  the 
traffic. 

In  the  early  construction  of  railways,  a  common  type  of  track  struc- 
ture consisted  of  timbers  laid  longitudinally  on  cross  ties.  On  the  timbers 
was  placed  a  narrow  iron  strap  rail  %  by  2%  inches  in  size,  which  weighed 
about  18.75  pounds  per  yard  or  29.46  tons  per  mile.  In  modern  track  con- 
struction cross  ties  are  laid  from  twenty  to  twenty-two  inches  center  to 
center,  with  "  T  "  rail  weighing  from  85  to  100  pounds  per  yard,  or  from 
133  to  157  tons  per  mile.  Some  lines  with  especially  heavy  traffic  use  rails 
weighing  135  pounds  per  yard  or  212.14  tons  per  mile. 

85  Lb.  to  135  Lb.  Rail 


Cxeosoted  Tires 
"x  8"x  8'0"to 

7"x  9"x  8'6" 


Ballast  -  Broke  a  Stone  or  Gravel 


STANDARD  SINGLE  TRACK  1910 
FIG.  1 

The  development  of  the  rail  illustrates  the  extent  to  which  scientific 
principles  have  been  followed  in  the  management  and  operation  of  our  rail- 
ways. For  many  years  the  ablest  scientists  and  metallurgical  engineers  have 
studied  the  subject  of  steel  rails,  both  as  to  physical  characteristics  and 
chemical  composition.  Originally  the  maximum  wheel  loads  were  from 
four  to  five  tons,  but  they  have  steadily  increased  under  modern  traffic  to 
fifteen  tons.  The  tremendous  stresses  imposed  by  such  heavy  unit  loads 
require  rails  of  large  section  and  of  the  best  design  and  character. 

The  appliances  used  to  join  rails  together  has  developed  from  the  or- 
dinary chairs  and  fish  plates  to  a  rail  joint  of  strength  equal  to  the  body 
of  the  rail,  thus  preserving  the  unbroken  continuity  in  the  surface  of  the 
track.  The  joint  which  was  formerly  the  weakest  part  of  track  construction 
has  become  as  strong  as  the  rail  itself, 


SAMUEL  M.  FELTON,   >73 


223 


The  original  strap  rail  was  secured  to  the  timbers  supporting  it  by 
small  spikes  not  much  larger  than  the  ordinary  wire  nail.  The  modern 
track  spike  is  a  screw  spike,  carefully  adjusted  after  the  tie  has  been  pre- 
viously bored,  which  securely  holds  the  rail  in  place  on  the  tie. 


SECTION  OF  STRAP  RAIL  1848 

Pounds  per  Yard 18.75 

Tons  per  Mile_  _  _     29.46 


HEAVIEST  SECTION  OF  RAIL  1910 

Pounds  per  Yard 135 

Tons  per  Mile 212.14 

FIG.  2 


STRAP  RAILRAILROAD  TRACK-  1S50 

Iron  Plate  %"x2H- 
Oak  Ribbon 

6x6" 


Triangular  Blocks 
or  Knees  Spiked  to; 
Ties. 


— 140- 


Ballast  -  Earth 
Ties6"x6"x9'0" 


Section 


FIG.  3 


The  construction  of  special  track  work,  such  as  frogs,  switches  and 
crossings,  is  the  subject  of  careful  attention  as  to  design  and  efficiency  in 
service.  The  use  of  manganese  steel  has  resulted  in  increasing  the  life  of 
such  appliances  from  four  to  five  fold. 

Early  railway  construction  made  use  of  timber  almost  exclusively  in 


224  {SCIENTIFIC   MANAGEMENT   OF  AMEBICAN   KAILWAYS 

building  bridges,  trestles  and  culverts.  The  rapid  depreciation  and  the 
ever  increasing  weights  of  locomotives  and  cars  made  necessary  frequent 
renewals,  with  heavy  costs  for  maintenance.  The  cost  of  the  early  timber 
structures  was  from  $5.00  to  $10.00  per  lineal  foot.  In  modern  construc- 
tion, stone,  concrete  masonry  and  steel  have  replaced  the  wooden  structures 
and  the  cost  ranges  from  $150  to  $300  per  lineal  foot  in  the  larger  bridges. 

Where  masonry  and  steel  structures  are  prohibitive  and  wooden 
structures  are  still  used,  the  timber  is  often  treated  to  preserve  and  prolong 
its  life,  thereby  conserving  the  timber  supply  and  decreasing  the  cost  of 
maintenance. 

Many  bridges  are  now  used  with  solid  floors,  which  with  the  use  of 
ballast,  provide  a  continuous  and  solid  roadbed  over  such  structures,  where 
the  track  surface  is  maintained  by  the  ordinary  track  force  with  great 
saving. 

The  building  structures  of  railways  have  been  developed  with  other 
elements  of  the  property.  Originally  all  or  nearly  all  railway  buildings 
were  constructed  of  wood.  Now  timber  is  rarely  used,  excepting  in  small 
isolated  buildings. 

Passenger  and  freight  stations,  which  in  the  early  days  were  built  of 
wood  at  a  cost  of  from  $1,000  to  $2,500,  are  now  built  of  brick  and  stone, 
costing  from  $10,000  to  $100,000.  At  large  terminals,  the  costs  run  into 
the  millions. 

Engine  houses,  formerly  built  of  wood  about  forty  feet  in  length,  that 
could  comfortably  house  the  small  engines,  cost  from  $500  to  $800  per 
engine  stall.  They  are  now  built  of  brick  or  concrete,  one  hundred  to  one 
hundred  and  twenty-five  feet  in  length,  and  cost  from  $2,500  to  $3,000 
per  stall. 

Coaling  stations  which  formerly  consisted  of  small  platforms,  equipped 
with  hand  derricks  and  buckets  of  a  capacity  of  one  ton,  where  coal  was 
shoveled  and  elevated  by  hand  on  to  engine  tenders  at  accost  of  from 
fifteen  to  twenty  cents  per  ton,  are  now  built  of  concrete  with  automatic 
machinery  for  elevating,  storing  and  weighing  coal  and  delivering  on  tenders 
at  a  cost  of  from  one  to  two  cents  per  ton. 

Water  stations  which  in  early  days  consisted  of  small  wooden  tanks 
on  timber  foundations,  with  capacities  of  from  twenty  to  thirty  thousand 
gallons,  from  which  water  was  taken  directly  into  engine  tanks,  have  been 
replaced  with  steel  tanks  elevated  from  thirty  to  fifty  feet,  with  capacities 
of  one  hundred  thousand  gallons,  from  which  water  is  delivered  rapidly 
through  water  columns  located  alongside  of  tracks;  and  on  lines  of  dense 
traffic  and  high  speedy  water  is  taken  into  engine  tenders  through  track 


SAMUEL  M.  FELTON,   '73  225 

tanks  from  scoops  lowered  from  tenders  while  trains  are  in  motion.  The 
treatment  of  water  by  removing  the  scale-forming  matter  has  been  highly 
developed  and  has  reduced  the  consumption  of  fuel  and  the  cost  of  repairs 
to  engines. 

The  original  machine  shop  plant  for  the  repair  and  renewal  of  locomo- 
tives and  cars  usually  consisted  of  a  group  of  small  wooden  buildings  with 
an  investment  of  a  few  thousand  dollars.  These  facilities  have  grown  to 
such  an  extent  that  every  system  of  any  size  has  from  one  to  four  plants, 
consisting  of  locomotive  erecting,  boiler,  blacksmith,  car  erecting  and  paint 
shops,  foundries  and  storehouses,  all  equipped  with  the  most  modern 
appliances. 

As  the  density  of  traffic  increased,  the  necessity  for  the  protection  of 
life  and  property  and  the  prompt  movement  of  trains  became  essential.  A 
scientific  study  of  the  question  resulted  in  perfecting  a  standard  system 
of  automatic  block  signals.  Thousands  of  miles  of  line  have  thus  been 
protected  and  millions  of  dollars  expended  within  the  past  few  years,  result- 
ing in  greater  safety  of  operation,  increased  track  capacity  for  train  move- 
ment and  economy  in  operation. 

The  standard  electric  automatic  block  signals  installed  on  railways  to- 
day cost  about  $850  per  mile  for  single  track  and  about  $1,250  per  mile  for 
double  track.  These  signals  are  operated  by  means  of  track  circuits.  The 
road  protected  is  divided  into  sections  called  "  blocks  "  which  are  usually 
from  one-half  to  two  miles  in  length.  Each  end  of  the  block  is  protected 
by  a  signal  which  governs  the  section  of  road  to  which  it  relates.  As  soon 
as  a  block  or  section  is  occupied  or  cleared,  the  indication  is  reflected  by 
the  position  of  the  signal  which  during  the  day  time  is  represented  by  the 
position  of  an  arm  and  at  night  by  the  color  of  a  light.  Any  obstruction 
which  affects  the  track  circuit  will  immediately  operate  the  signal  govern- 
ing the  block  section.  Not  only  is  the  presence  of  a  train  within  a  block 
detected,  but  if  there  should  be  a  broken  rail,  a  misplaced  switch  or  a  slide, 
the  signal  will  immediately  go  to  danger.  The  system  of  block  signalling 
has  become  so  reliable  that  the  chance  for  the  failure  of  a  signal  has  been 
reduced  to  as  low  as  one  movement  in  one  million. 

The  introduction  of  interlocking  protection  at  railroad  crossings  has 
increased  the  efficiency  of  train  movement  and  eliminated  the  possibility  of 
accidents.  The  ingenuity  and  scientific  skill  exhibited  in  the  development 
of  automatic  signals  and  interlocking  is  one  of  the  advances  made  in  rail- 
road engineering. 

The  introduction  of  labor  saving  devices  in  maintenance  of  way  work, 
such  as  power  propelled  cars,  the  use  of  power  drills,  ditching  machines, 


226  SCIENTIFIC   MANAGEMENT   OF   AMEEICAN   RAILWAYS 

modern  derricks,  pile  drivers,  track  laying  'machines  and  the  superior  quality 
of  tools  has  resulted  in  increased  efficiency  in  the  output  of  labor. 

The  use  of  power  section  hand  cars  has  made  possible  the  lengthening 
of  sections  which  were  formerly  five  miles  long,  to  ten  miles  in  length,  thus 
eliminating  about  half  the  section  foremen  and  by  reason  of  the  increased 
speed  of  these  cars  going  to  and  from  work  and  conserving  the  energy  of 
the  men,  further  increased  efficiency  in  track  labor  of  about  25  per  cent 
is  secured. 

In  a  specific  case,  sections  were  lengthened  from  six  miles  to  ten  and 
twelve  miles,  and  a  saving  effected  in  labor  of  42  per  cent  in  winter  and  23 
per  cent  in' summer. 

These  power  operated  section  cars  also  make  possible  the  use  of  power 
operated  tools,  such  as  track  drills,  saws,  spike  drivers  and  tool  grinders, 
and  it  is  not  difficult  to  extend  their  operation  to  other  classes  of  work 
which  is  now  done  by  hand,  with  a  large  saving  in  cost  and  an  increased 
efficiency  in  output  and  character  of  work  performed. 

The  methods  of  planning  track  work  systematically  and  intelligently 
in  place  of  the  former  methods,  have  produced  economical  results.  This 
applies  to  the  work  of  laying  rail,  placing  ties,  ballasting,  installing  frogs 
and.  switches,  cleaning  right  of  way,  construction  of  bridges,  trestles  and 
culverts  and  general  maintenance  of  line,  surfacing  track  and  other  opera- 
tions. 

In  all  the  advance  that  has  been  made  in  the  scientific  management 
of  railways,  no  one  thing  probably  has  contributed  more  to  the  general 
development  of  a  railway  system  and  the  facility  for  handling  the  business, 
than  the  adoption  of  a  standard  gauge  in  this  country.  Gauges  of  3 
feet,  5  feet  and  6  feet  have  been  changed  to  the  standard  gauge  of  4  feet 
8%  inches,  which  made  the  interchangeability  of  freight  equipment 
possible.  !  !  !  i  ;  H 

THE  BEHABILITATION  OP  AMERICAN  EAILWAYS 

The  rehabilitation  of  American  railways  in  recent  years,  owing  to  the 
heavy  decrease  of  revenue  per  unit  of  traffic  moved  has  become  general. 
Lines  originally  constructed  in  the  most  economical  manner  possible,  with 
maximum  grades  of  fifty-three  feet  or  more  per  mile,  that  were  able  to 
make  a  fair  return  on  their  cost,  with  rates  of  between  one  and  two  cents 
per  ton  mile,  when  confronted  with  the  problem  of  handling  traffic  at 
rates  of  between  one-half  cent  and  three-quarters  of  a  cent  per  ton  per 
mile,  found  it  necessary  to  take  radical  steps  to  meet  this  condition.  These 
conditions  were  overcome  by  general  rehabilitation.  A  typical  case  of  a 


SAMUEL  M.  FELTON,   73 


227 


western  railway  which  was  so  treated  is  herewith  cited.  On  this  road, 
grades  formerly  fifty-three  feet  or  more  per  mile  were  reduced  to  from  six- 
teen to  twenty-six  feet  per  mile;  locomotives  with  cylinders  17"  by  24"  in 
size,  weighing  54,600  pounds  on  drivers  and  with  a  tractive  effort  of  13,820 
pounds  capable  of  hauling  on  a  fifty-three  foot  grade  about  500  gross  tons, 
were  replaced  by  Consolidation  engines  weighing  190,500  pounds  on  drivers 
with  cylinders  22"  by  28"  in  size,  with  a  -tractive  effort  of 
40,409  pounds,  and,  therefore,  capable  of  hauling  on  a  3/10 
grade  3,500  gross  tons;  rail  of  sixty  to  seventy  pounds  per 


REHABILITATION  OF  A  WESTERN  RAILROAD 

Showing-  Increases  and  Decreases  by  Percentages  in  Results 
of  Operation  before  and  after  Rehabilitation 

Item 

Decrease 

Increase 

Miles  of  Eoa.i 

^H  15.032 

Freight  Earnings 

$$$$$$$$$$$$$^$$$$$$$$$3  66.94$ 

Coal  Earnings 

:$$i>i;$$$$$$$^ 

Passenger  Earnings 

^^^^^^$^  69.772 

Gross  Earnings 

^$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$^^       89.995? 

Operating  Expenses  and 
TaxfiS 

§$$$$^^^$^$$^^^$$$$^^   94.82  £ 

Net  Earnings 

^^^^^                   81.43  ?J 

Passenger  Train  Mileage 

^^§^^^  88.26  % 

Freight  Train  Mileage 

$^^j  22.63  £ 

Tonnage 

§$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$^^ 

Tons  per  Train  Mile 

$$^$$^$$^$$^§1  116.01  # 

Ton  Mileage 

Passenger  Mileage 

^^^^^^^^^^^  70.74  £ 

Average  Eate  per 
Passenger  per  Mile 

1.48;^ 

Earnings  per  Passenger 
Train  Mile 

^$$$$$$1  22.02^ 

Average  Eate  per  Ton  Mile 

E2£50^ 

Train  Mile 

^  64.9U^ 

FIG.  4 

yard  in  weight  was  replaced  with  rail  of  eighty  pounds  per  yard; 
bridges  of  light  construction  sufficient  to  carry  the  original  locomotives 
were  replaced  with  modern  structures  capable  of  carrying  the  heaviest  type 
of  locomotives;  track  originally  unballasted,  or  provided  with  a  light  bed 
of  ballast,  was  thoroughly  ballasted  with  broken  stone ;  side-tracks  originally 
long  enough  to  accommodate  short  trains  only  were  extended  to  handle  the 
increased  length  of  trains ;  complete  signal  systems  were  installed  and  train 
movements  thereby  facilitated  and  made  safer  \  mo^e.rn  coaling  stations  and 


228  SCIENTIFIC   MANAGEMENT   OF  AMEEICAN   KAILWAYS 

water  stations  handling  coal  and  water  at  the  lowest  possible  cost  were 
erected;  shops  with  modern  tools  replacing  those  of  former  years  were 
provided  and  almost  the  entire  railway  in  many  instances  was  rebuilt. 

As  an  illustration,  a  diagram  is  presented  showing  the  results  of  the 
rehabilitation  of  this  railroad  covering  a  period  of  seven  years  giving  the 
increases  and  decreases  by  percentages  during  the  rehabilitation  period. 

This  railroad  was  able  to  increase  its  gross  earnings  90  per  cent  and 
its  net  earnings  '81%  per  cent,  although  the  average  rate  per  ton  mile  for 
freight  transportation  decreased  24%  per  cent  and  the  average  rate  per 
passenger  per  mile  decreased  1%  per  cent.  Particular  attention  is  called 
to  the  large  increase  in  the  earnings  of  coal  traffic.  Previous  to  the  re- 
habilitation of  the  road,  owing  to  the  heavy  grades  and  light  power,  coal 
could  not  be  carried  profitably  at  the  existing  freight  rates.  With  a  reduc- 
tion of  grades  and  increase  in  power  which  caused  an  increase  in  train  load 
of  116  per  cent,  it  was  possible  to  carry  coal  at  a  profit,  and  the  earnings 
from  coal  traffic  alone  increased  nearly  4%  times. 

The  expenditures  per  mile  of  road  necessary  to  accomplish  these  re- 
sults were  equal  to  the  original  cost  of  the  railroad.  This  illustration  is 
typical  of  similar  results  which  have  been  secured  on  many  American  rail- 
ways and  emphasizes  the  fact  that  by  these  means,  the  public  has  been 
benefitted  to  an  enormous  degree  in  the  reduced  cost  of  transportation. 

MOTIVE  POWER  AND  EQUIPMENT 

The  development  of  the  equipment  of  our  railways  has  kept  pace  with 
the  progress  made  in  roadbed,  tracks  and  structures. 

It  is  interesting  to  trace  the  growth  of  the  transportation  industry 
through  the  development  made  in  locomotives  and  cars,  and  for  this  pur- 
pose a  graphic  comparison  is  given,  showing  the  types  of  locomotives  and 
passenger  and  freight  cars  used  during  the  period  from  1850  to  1910  by 
decades.  (See  Figs,  at  end  of  article.) 

The  passenger  locomotive  of  1850  was  equipped  with  cylinders  14"  by 
20"  in  size  and  weight  on  drivers  of  15,000  pounds.  The  typical  passenger 
locomotive  of  1910  has  cylinders  24"  by  26"  in  size  and  weight  on  drivers 
of  178,500  pounds,  or  nearly  twelve  times  the  weight  of  the  passenger  loco- 
motive of  1850. 

The  freight  locomotive  of  1850  was  equipped  with  cylinders  14%"  by 
20"  in  size  and  weight  on  drivers  of  26,000  pounds,  with  a  tractive  effort 
of  6,500  pounds.  The  typical  freight  locomotive  of  1910  has  cylinders 
24"  by  28"  in  size,  weight  on  drivers  of  216,450  pounds,  with  a  tractive 


SAMUEL  M.  FELTON,    73  229 

effort  of  54,110  pounds,  or  about  eight  and  one-half  times  the,  power  of  the 
locomotive  of  the  earlier  period. 

In  addition  to  the  typical  passenger  and  freight  locomotives  in  use  at 
the  present  time,  there  are  special  types  of  passenger  locomotives  with 
cylinders  26"  by  30"  in  size  and  weight  on  drivers  of  210,000  pounds,  and 
special  Mallet  type  freight  locomotives  with  cylinders  28"  and  38"  in  size 
and  weight  on  drivers  of  550,000  pounds  with  a  tractive  effort  of  137,500 
pounds.  (Figs.  23  and  24.) 

An  interesting  comparison  is  also  shown  in  the  diagrams  illustrating 
Engine  No.  1  (Fig.  25),  which  is  the  first  locomotive  purchased  by  the 
Southern  Pacific  road,  and  Mallet  type  engine  No.  4004  (Fig.  26),  which  is 
the  most  recently  designed  freight  locomotive  on  that  road.  Engine  No.  1 
was  placed  in  service  in  1868.  It  had  cylinders  11"  by  15"  in  size,  weight 
on  drivers  of  18,500  pounds,  with  a  boiler  pressure  of  125  pounds.  Engine 
No.  4004  has  compound  cylinders  26"  and  40"  by  30"  and  weight  on  drivers 
394,700  pounds,  with  a  boiler  pressure  of  200  pounds  and  tractive  effort 
of  94,880  pounds.  The  total  length  of  engine  and  tender  of  Engine  No.  1 
was  21'  2";  the  total  length  of  Engine  4004,  including  tender,  95'  9%". 

In  addition  to  the  growth  in  the  capacity  of  modern  locomotives, 
their  efficiency  has  been  greatly  increased  by  appliances  which  simplify 
and  economize  the  operation,  such  as  electric  headlights,  automatic 
stokers,  automatic  fire  door  openers,  power  reversing  gears,  driver  brakes, 
improved  air  brake  equipment  and  boiler  construction,  the  use  of  super- 
heaters and  re-heaters,  compound  cylinders  and  the  articulated  features  in 
extremely  large  types  of  locomotives. 

The  economy  in  locomotive  performance  is  carefully  watched  by  a 
compilation  of  statistics  showing  miles  run  between  light,  general  and 
thorough  repairs;  pounds  of  coal,  pounds  of  waste,  pints  of  oil  per  100  ton 
miles,  cost  per  mile  run  of  wages  of  enginemen,  for  fuel,  waste,  oil  and 
talJow;  repairs,  replacement,  cleaning  and  the  total  cost  of  maintenance 
per  locomotive  per  mile. 

The  cost  of  locomotive  fuel  on  railways  in  the  United  States  is  ap- 
proximately two  hundred  million  dollars  per  annum,  or  nearly  one-ninth 
the  total  cost  of  railway  operation.  Careful  attention  is  given  to  the 
economic  use  of  fuel  by  purchasing  coal  of  superior  quality  under  rigid 
specifications,  the  weighing  and  recording  of  coal  delivered  to  locomotives 
and  by  offering  premiums  for  its  economical  use. 

The  car  equipment  used  in  passenger  service  originally  consisted  of 
wooden  cars  with  open  platforms.  The  growth  and  development  of  pas- 
senger train' cars  is  illustrated  by  a  series  of  diagrams  (Figs.  29-35),  showing 


230          SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT   OF  AMERICAN  RAILWAYS 

the  typical  passenger  coaches  in  use  on  railways  from  1850  to  1910  by 
decades.  By  referring  to  the  diagrams,  it  will  be  noted  that  the  early  coaches 
were  constructed  without  due  regard  to  safety,  comfort  or  convenience  and 
proper  ventilation  or  facilities  for  lighting  and  heating.  The  progress  in  the 
art  of  passenger  car  construction  shows  that  wooden  cars  were  used  up  to  the 
year  1895,  when  the  wooden  platforms  were  replaced  by  steel  platforms. 
About  the  year  1897,  the  cars  were  further  strengthened  by  the  applica- 
tion of  steel  ends  and  reinforced  trucks.  The  use  of  vestibules  was  first 
made  about  the  year  1887,  when  the  narrow  vestibules  were  adopted  and 
wide  vestibules  were  first  used  in  1895.  The  use  of  all-steel  trucks  was  firFt 
made  in  the  year  1906. 

The  modern  passenger  car  of  the  year  1910  consists  of  an  all-steel  car 
which  is  built  with  due  consideration  to  safety,  comfort  and  convenience 
of  passengers.  Careful  attention  has  been  given  to  the  matter  of  ventilat- 
ing, lighting  and  heating,  and  the  danger  to  passengers  in  case  of  accident 
is  practically  eliminated.  In  1850  the  average  cost  of  a  passenger  coach 
was  about  $2,500,  while  in  1910  the  cost  of  an  all-steel  passenger  car  is 
about  $16^000. 

The  first  sleeping  car  used  on  American  railways  was  built  by  George 
M.  Pullman  at  the  Bloomington,  Illinois,  shops  of  the  Chicago  and  Alton 
railroad  in  the  year  1858,  when  passenger  cars  Nos.  9  and  19  were  con- 
verted into  sleeping  cars;  the  work  being  done  under  the  personal  super- 
vision of  Mr.  Pullman.  These  cars  were  forty-four  feet  long,  had  flat  roofs 
like  box  cars  and  single  sash  windows  about  twelve  inches  square.  The 
height  of  the  car  inside  was  about  6  feet.  Into  this  space,  ten  sleeping 
car  sections  were  built  with  a  washroom  at  each  end.  These  two  cars  went 
into  service  in  1858,  and  the  changes  necessary  cost  $1,000  each.  They 
were  upholstered  in  plush,  lighted  with  oil  lamps  and  equipped  with  box 
stoves  burning  wood.  There  were  no  porters  in  charge  of  the  cars,  the 
brakemen  making  up  the  beds. 

As  early  as  1862,  a  restaurant  car  was  operated  over  the  Philadelphia, 
Wilmington  and  Baltimore  railroad,  consisting  of  a  car  fitted  with  a  counter 
extending  lengthwise  of  the  car,  where  meals  were  served  to  passengers  the 
same  as  at  an  ordinary  lunch  counter. 

The  use  of  regular  dining  cars  on  American  railways  commenced  in 
the  year  1868.  They  have  greatly  contributed  to  the  comfort  and  con- 
venience of  the  traveling  public.  A  modern  dining  car,  which  is  used  prac- 
tically only  a  few  hours  per  day,  costs  approximately  from  $18,000  to 
$25,000. 

The  progress  and  development  made  in  the  construction  of  freight  cars 


SAMUEL  M.  FBLTON,   '73  ^231 

from  1850  to  1910  are  illustrated  by  a  series  of  diagrams  (Figs.  36-42) 
showing  the  typical  freight  cars  in  use  during  that  period  by  decades.  The 
freight  car  of  1850  was  a  wooden  box  car,  twenty-four  feet  in  length,  with 
a  capacity  of  eight  tons,  and  weighed  approximately  13,000  pounds.  The 
modern  box  car  of  1910  consists  of  a  car  forty  feet  in  length,  weighing 
45,000  pounds,  with  a  capacity  of  100,000  pounds.  It  is  constructed  with 
steel  trucks  and  steel  underframes.  The  average  cost  of  a  box  car  in  1850 
was  approximately  $400.  The  cost  of  a  modern  box  car  is  $1,200.  Early 
freight  cars  were  equipped  with  link  and  pin  couplers  and  hand  brakes. 
Now  all  freight  cars  are  equipped  with  air  brakes  and  automatic  couplers. 
The  scientific  design  and  construction  of  freight  cars  has  produced  a  car  of 
greater  strength  and  less  weight  per  ton  of  capacity,  and  by  reason  of  the  use 
of  steel  under  frames  and  steel  trucks,  the  life  of  the  car  is  greatly  increased 
and  the  cost  of  maintenance  decreased.  Special  types  of  freight  car  equip- 
ment demanded  by  various  classes  of  commodities  are  provided  for  the  con- 
venience of  the  public.  These  embrace  such  cars  as  refrigerators,  automo- 
bile and  furniture  cars,  cars  for  the  shipment  of  live  stock  and  poultry, 
tank  and  coal  cars. 

The  development  of  the  gondola  or  coal  car  is  illustrated  by  the  dia- 
grams (Figs.  43  and  44),  one  of  which  shows  a  coal  car  built  for  the  Lehigh 
Coal  and  Navigation  Compan}^,  which  consisted  of  a  wooden  car  with  four 
wheels,  total  length  ten  feet  two  inches,  width  five  feet  eleven  inches,  wheel 
base  five  feet  four  inches,  capacity  eight  tons,  and  weight  7,392  pounds;  total 
weight  of  car  and  contents  eleven  one-half  tons.  The  steel  coal  car  illus- 
trated in  the  diagram  has  a  length  over  all  of  forty  feet  two  inches,  width 
nine  feet  six  inches,  capacity  seventy  tons;  weight  of  car  twenty-five  tons, 
or  a  total  weight  of  car  and  contents  of  ninety-five  tons.  The  modern  car 
has  a  total  weight  of  car  and  contents  of  over  eight  times  the  smaller  car. 

The  frictional  resistance  in  pounds  per  ton  is  very  much  greater  in 
the  use  of  light  capacity  cars.  The  resistance  in  pounds  per  ton  on  a  car 
weighing  ten  tons  is  thirteen  pounds,  while  the  resistance  per  ton  on  cars 
weighing  ninety-five  tons  is  less  than  three  pounds.  In  other  words,  with 
the  use  of  the  modern  steel  coal  car,  the  resistance  on  level  straight  track 
is  less  than  one-fourth  as  much  per  ton  as  compared  with  the  light  capacity 
car.  This  fact  has  largely  contributed  to  the  increase  in  train  loads  under 
modern  operation. 


232  SCIENTIFIC   MANAGEMENT    OF   AMERICAN   RAILWAYS 

MODERN  MACHINE  SHOP  PRACTICE 

The  modern  railway  machine  shop  is  equipped  with  shop  machinery 
and  tools  designed  to  promote  the  highest  omciency  and  economy  in  produc- 
tion. A  partial  list  of  the  modern  appliances  and  devices  introduced  in 
shop  practice  and  some  specific  instances  of  economy  of  operation  may  be 
given  as  illustrating  the  results  aready  secured. 

Car-axle  Lathes:  The  axle  lathe  with  end  drive,  in  which  only  one  end 
of  the  axle  can  be  finished  at  one  time,  has  now  disappeared  and  the  center- 
driven  lathe,  allowing  both  ends  to  be  finished  at  one  time,  is  universal. 
Since  1900  car  axles  have  increased  in  size,  and  while  before  that  date  a 
daily  output  of  from  ten  to  twelve  axles  was  considered  excellent,  to-day  a 
good  axle  turner  on  the  modern  heavy  lathe  will  finish  eighteen  axles  of  the 
heaviest  type  from  the  rough  forging  in  ten  hours.  A  month's  record  on  a 
modern  lathe  showed  an  output  of  twenty-three  axles  per  day.  Cutting 
speeds  have  increased  125  per  cent. 

Locomotive-axle  Lathe:  This  lathe  is  driven  from  one  end  on  account 
of  finishing  the  axle  all  over.  Locomotive  axles,  the  same  as  car  axles, 
have  increased  in  diameter  within  recent  years,  and  lathes  have  been  pro- 
vided in  some  cases  with  two  carriages  and,  in  others,  with  front  and  back 
tool  rests  on  one  carriage  to  remove  the  metal  more  rapidly.  The  axles 
are  frequently  finished  in  two  stages,  one  being  to  turn  the  axle  from  the 
rough  forging  to  nearly  finished  size  in  one  lathe,  then  transferring  it  to 
the  finishing  lathe.  A  modern  lathe  of  this  type  is  equipped  with  thirty  to 
thirty-five  horse-power  motor,  and  a  cutting  speed  up  to  sixty  feet  per 
minute.  One  roughing  lathe  will  readily  turn  out  twelve  to  fourteen  loco- 
motive axles  every  ten  hours,  as  compared  with  three  axles  per  day  on  the 
old  lathes. 

Car-wheel  Borers:  The  recent  introduction  of  all-steel  car  wheels  has 
made  it  necessary  to  introduce  a  heavier  patter  n  of  car- wheel  borer.  Com- 
parison with  ten  years  ago  cannot  be  made  except  on  cast  iron  wheels.  At 
that  time  boring  seventy-five  wheels  per  day  was  regarded  as  the  limit. 
To-day  cast  iron  wheels  are  chucked  and  bored  in  something  less  than  five 
minutes,  or  at  the  rate  of  one  hundred  and  twenty  wheels  per  day  of 
ten  hours. 

Boring  Mills  for  Tire  Boring:  In  no  one  instance  has  the  combination 
of  a  powerful  machine  with  high  speed  steel  and  a  well  devised  plan  shown 
more  marked  results  than  the  boring  mill  built  especially  for  tire  work. 
The  use  of  high  speed  steel  has  allowed  the  doubling  of  speed,  and  with  the 
increased  strength  and  power  in  the  machine  makes  it  possible  to  more  than 


SAMUEL,  M.  FELTON,   '73  233 

double  the  section  of  cut.  The  number  of  tires  that  can  be  bored  and 
turned  to-day  is  at  least  three  times  that  possible  ten  years  ago.  On  a  100- 
inch  boring  mill,  fifty-four  locomotive  tires  of  average  diameter  were  bored 
in  nine  hours. 

Car-wheel  Lathes:  The  earliest  type  of  lathe  for  turning  car  wheels  on 
their  axles  was  of  the  same  design  as  the  driving  wheel  lathe  supporting 
the  axle  on  centers  and  driving  by  whatever  form  of  driver  could  be  brought 
to  bear  on  the  wheels.  The  possibility  of  increasing  the  output  came  with 
the  introduction  of  high-duty  steel  and  the  use  of  the  sure-grip  drivers. 
The  result  has  been  a  great  increase  in  the  number  of  wheels  turned,  and 
twenty  pairs  is  not  above  the  average  in  the  heavy  lathe  in  use  to-day.  Eecent 
tests  made  resulted  in  an  output  of  twenty-five  to  thirty  pairs  of  wheels  in 
ten  hours,  as  compared  with  four  pairs  on  the  old  machines.  Motors  of 
fifty  horse-power  capacity  are  used  on  the  heavier  machines.  Pneumatic 
tool  clamps  for  clamping  the  tool  have  made  a  large  saving  in  time. 

Driving-wheel  Lathe:  Before  the  introduction  of  high-duty  steel,  the 
average  pairs  of  wheels  turned  per  day  was  not  over  two.  This  has  been 
increased  to  an  average  of  six  to  seven  in  the  standard  lathe,  and  on  a  test 
run  of  a  heavy  90 -inch  lathe,  ten  pairs  of  wheels,  averaging  69  inches  in 
diameter,  were  turned  in  less  than  ten  hours.  The  capacity  of  the  modern 
wheel  lathe  is  so  much  greater  than  the  old  lathes  that  in  mamr  shops  four 
of  the  old  lathes  have  been  thrown  out  and  replaced  by  a  single  modern 
lathe. 

Arch-bar  Drill:  The  introduction  of  high-duty  drills  has  increased  the 
output  of  these  machines  from  fifty,  under  former  methods,  to  one  hundred 
and  fifty  arch  bars  per  day  under  modern  practice.  Improvements  in  these 
machines  have  been  made  to  keep  pace  with  the  increased  requirements. 

The  greatest  advance  in  machine  tool  construction  has  been  made  since 
the  advent  of  high-speed  steel  in  the  period  beginning  with  the  year  1900. 
The  general  introduction  of  electric  motors  has  assisted  in  the  new  develop- 
ment of  machine  tools.  The  result  has  been  an  increase  in  section  of  cut  or 
material  removed,  and  in  cutting  speed  of  from  200  to  300  per  cent. 
These  changed  conditions  have  of  necessity  resulted  in  the  use  of  more  high 
grade  material  and  a  great  increase  in  weight  and  strength  of  the  parts  of 
the  tools. 

In  no  one  line  of  machine  tools  can  the  recent  improvements  be  more 
accurately  traced  than  in  those  used  in  the  construction  of  cars  and  locomo- 
tives, for  here  work  of  a  specific  character  is  done  and  comparisons  of  out- 
put with  that  of  earlier  years  can  be  more  readily  made. 

The   great   increase   of   production,   as   shown   by   the   above   list   of 


234  SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT   OF  AMEEICAN   EAILWAYS 

machines,  is  only  an  example  of  the  changes  in  machine  tools  generally, 
and  could  be  extended  to  machines  of  all  descriptions,  such  as  lathes, 
planers,  drills,  milling  machines  and  the  various  other  machines  used  about 
railroad  shops. 

The  use  of  pneumatic  tools  was  first  introduced  in  machine  shop  prac- 
tice in  1894.  About  1896,  the  pneumatic  drills  were  introduced  and  a 
short  time  later  the  riveting  hammer,  and  many  other  tools  were  developed. 
The  introduction  of  these  tools  has  practically  increased  the  effective  out- 
put in  work  three  fold. 

One  man,  by  hand,  will  expand  and  bead  one  hundred  and  thirty 
2-inch  flues  in  a  locomotive  boiler  in  ten  hours,  while  one  man  with  a 
pneumatic  hammer  will  do  the  same  work  in  five  hours.  One  man,  by  hand, 
will  ream  about  forty  holes  per  hour,  while  one  man  with  a  pneumatic  drill 
will  ream  on  an  average  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  holes  per  hour.  With 
the  use  of  the  pneumatic  drill  a  hole  four  and  one-half  inches  in  diameter 
and  three  inches  deep  was  drilled  in  soft  steel  in  one  minute  and  thirty-five 
seconds,  while  a  man  with  a  hand  drill  required  two  hours  and  ten  minutes 
to  drill  the  same  size  hole. 

A  comparative  test  made  of  the  cost  of  boiler  work  with  the  use  of  the 
pneumatic  hammer  as  against  the  old  method,  resulted  as  follows:  two 
hundred  and  fifty-three  rivets  were  driven  by  a  pneumatic  hammer  in  nine 
hours  at  an  average  cost  per  rivet  of  two  cents;  the  same  number  of  rivets 
were  driven  by  hand  in  fifteen  hours  at  an  average  cost  of  six  cents  per 
rivet,  or  just  three  times  the  cost  of  the  pneumatic  hammer-driven  rivets. 

During  the  period  1880-1890,  rope  drives  were  used  extensively  v  in 
shop  practice,  and  while  this  method  of  operation  effected  some  saving  over 
what  had  previously  been  accomplished,  the  friction  losses  still  remained 
abnormal  and  the  entire  shop  was  dependent  upon  any  one  unit.  A  belt 
accidentally  coming  off  a  line  shaft  pulley  would  probably  necessitate 
shutting  down  the  main  driving  unit.  All  work  would  be  at  a  standstill 
temporarily,  and,  in  some  shops,  this  was  repeated  many  times  daily.  It 
is  not  difficult  to  realize  the  large  losses,  not  only  in  labor,  but  those  due 
to  delay  in  making  repairs  to  equipment,  which  resulted.  Naturally,  under 
these  conditions,  the  introduction  of  motors  for  the  operation  of  sections 
of  line  shafting  in  the  different  shops  was  looked  upon  with  great  favor. 

It  has  been  common  practice  since  about  the  year  1900  to  install  in 
modern  railroad  repair  shops  a  combination  of  group  and  individual  drives, 
and,  in  fact,  where  traveling  cranes  are  used  to  serve  the  heavier  machines, 
the  use  of  individual  motors  for  operating  the  various  machines  located 
beneath  the  cranes  becomes  imperative.  With  independent  motor  drive,  a 


SAMUEL  M.  FELTON,   >73  235 

fine  regulation  of  speed  can  be  obtained  which  enables  the  operator  to  in- 
crease the  output  of  a  given  machine  from  10  to  30  per  cent  over  belt  drive. 

The  rapid  increase  in  capacity  and  weight  of  rolling  stock  that  the  re- 
pair plants  are  now  being  required  to  maintain  makes  it  practically  im- 
possible to  obtain  an  accurate  comparison  of  the  cost  to  repair  locomotives 
and  cars  to-day  with  the  cost  prior  to  the  introduction  of  electricity  in  the 
shop.  From  actual  experience,  however,  the  reduction  in  cost  of  power  and 
labor  by  the  introduction  of  electrically  driven  machine  tools,  appliances  and 
central  power  plants,  has  made  a  reduction  in  the  cost  of  power  of  50  per 
cent  and  in  labor  of  25  per  cent. 

The  discovery  of  the  ox-hydric  and  oxo-acetylene  processes  of  cutting 
and  welding  metals  has  made  possible  repairs  to  locomotives,  machinery 
and  equipment  without  removal  of  the  parts,  thus  saving  immensely  in  dis- 
mantling and  utilizing  material  which  was  formerly  consigned  to  the 
scrap  pile. 

In  blacksmith  shops,  large  bull-dozers,  steam  hammers,  forging  ma- 
chines, hydraulic  presses  and  improved  furnaces  are  in  common  use.  In 
the  paint  shop,  the  use  of  pneumatic  devices  for  painting  and  cleaning  cars 
effect  large  economies.  In  the  general  shop  practice,  detailed  records  of 
costs  and  time  schedules  increase  the  efficiency  of  operations.  The  scientific 
and  economical  use  of  material  is  carefully  studied. 

Notwithstanding  the  large  increase  in  the  cost  of  labor  during  the 
past  thirty  years,  the  introduction  of  labor  saving  devices  and  improved 
machinery  has  reduced  the  unit  cost  of  work,  neutralizing  the  increased 
wage  paid. 

TRANSPORTATION 

Transportation  covers  train  movement,  terminal  work  and  the  general 
handling  of  traffic,  outside  of  its  solicitation.  It  is  in  this  direction  that 
many  great  economies  have  been  effected,  as  set  forth  in  the  table  on 
page  236. 

The  table  and  diagram  on  pages  236  and  237  illustrate  the  railway 
progress  made  in  the  United  States  during  the  past  two  decades. 

The  year  1890  represents  the  first  year  when  full  statistics  were  gath- 
ered for  all  railways  in  the  United  States,  and  it  is  therefore  impossible 
to  show  complete  results  for  earlier  years. 

An  examination  of  the  diagram  will  show  some  interesting  results. 
The  tremendous  increase  in  public  service  rendered  by  railways  is  readily 
apparent,  and  while  there  has  been  an  increase  in  the  cost  of  performing 
the  service  by  the  railroads,  it  shows  a  decrease  in  the  cost  to  the  public. 


236 


SCIENTIFIC   MANAGEMENT   OF  AMERICAN   RAILWAYS 


RAILWAY  RESULTS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  FOR  THE  FISCAL 
YEARS  1890-1900  AND  1910 


M  equals  1000. 

1890. 

1900. 

1910. 

Per  cent  of 
increase  1910 
over  1890. 

Population  .  .  . 

62,947,714 

76,085,794 

91,972,266 

46.2 

Miles  of  road  operated  
Net  capitalization  (M) 
Net  capitalization  per  mile.  . 
Total  operating  revenue.  (M) 
Operating  expenses  (M) 
Net  revenue  from  oper'n.(M) 
Total  revenue  per  mile  .  . 

156,404 
$7,577,327 
49,476 
1,051,877 
692,093 
359,783 
6,725 

192,556 
9,547,984 
51,094 
1,487,044 
961,428 
525,616 
7,722 

239,652 
13,872,380 
58,316 
2,787,266 
1,847,189 
940,076 
11,633 

53.2 
85.1 
17.9 
164.9 
165.4 
161.3 
72.9 

Operating  expenses  per  mile  . 
Net  operating  rev.  per  mile  .  . 
Taxes  . 

4,425 
2,300 
31  207  469 

4,993 
2,729 
48  332  273 

7,710 
3.923 
104  144  076 

74.2 
70.6 
233  7 

Taxes  per  mile  
Ratio  expenses  to  earnings  .  . 
Receipts,  passenger  ....  (M) 
Receipts,  mail  ....  (M) 

199 
65.80% 
260,786 
23,367 

254 
64.65% 
323,715 
37,752 

435 
66.27% 
631,772 
49,323 

118.5 
0.7 
142.2 
111  1 

Receipts,  express  
Receipts  per  pass'g'r  per  mi  .  . 
Passengers  carried  (M) 
Passengers  carried  1  mile.  (M) 
Average  pass'g'r  per  car  mile  . 
Receipts,  freight  ....  (M) 

20,277 
2.167  c 
492,430 

11,847,785 
41 
714,464 

28,416 
2.003  c. 
576,865 
16,039,007 
41 
1  049,256 

69,253 
1.871  c. 
952,325 
33,949,936 

58 
1  935,882 

241.5 
D13.6 
93.4 
186.5 
41.4 
170  9 

Receipts  per  ton  per  mi.  mills. 
Freight  carried,  tons  ...  (M) 
Freight  carried,  tons  1  mi  (M) 
Average  tons  per  train  
Locomotives,  number  
Locomotives,  weight,  tons  .  .  . 
Passenger  cars,  number  
Freight  cars,  number  .  .  . 

9.41 
636,541 
76,207,047 
175 
30,140 
1,265,880 
26,820 
918  491 

7.29 
1,101,680 
141,599,159 
271 
37,663 
2,023^02 
34,713 
1  365  531 

7.58 
1,760,103 
255,528,643 
382 
59,133 
4,271,000 
|         46,890 
ij    2  134  000 

D19.4 
176.5 
235.5 
118.3 
96.1 
237.2 
74.8 
132  3 

Freight  cars,  capacity,  tons  .  . 
Employees,  number  
Employees  per  100  mi.  of  line  . 
Employees  compensation  .  .  . 
Per  cent  of  total  revenue  .... 
Per  cent  of  operating  expenses 

19,288,301 
749,301 
479 
$418,716,265 
39.80 
60.50 

37,210,720 
1,017,653 
529 
577,264,841 
38.82 
60.04 

;;.  74,043,000 
J     1,754,400 
733 
1,172,181,000 
42.00 
63.41 

283.8 
134.1 
53.0 
179.9 

5.5   : 

[4.81 

It  is  clearly  shown  that  the  increase  in  the  capacity  of  locomotives  and 
cars  has  more  than  kept  pace  with  the  growth  of  the  traffic. 

There  is  only  one  item  of  cost  of  operation  of  railways  which  shows 
an  abnormal  increase,  and  that  is  the  matter  of  taxes.  The  taxation  of 
railways  increased  from  1890  to  1910,  233.7  per  cent,  while  the  net 
capitalization  of  railways  increased  only  85.1  per  cent.  It  is,  therefore, 
evident  from  these  figures  that  there  is  an  inequality  of  taxes  levied  upon 
railroad  property  as  compared  with  other  corporate  and  private  property. 
A  just  basis  of  taxation  is  one  where  every  dollar  of  property  value  is 
taxed  alike,  whether  it  be  railroad,  other  corporate  or  private  property. 


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238  SCIENTIFIC   MANAGEMENT    OF   AMERICAN   RAILWAYS 

An  investigation  made  in  one  of  the  largest  States  in  the  Union  re- 
cently showed  that  corporations  in  that  State  owning  less  than  one-sixth 
of  the  property  paid  over  one-half  the  taxes,  while  private  owners,  with 
over  five-sixths  of  the  total  property,  paid  less  than  one-half  the  taxes. 
It  is  likely  that  a  comparatively  similiar  situation  prevails  in  many  other 
States  of  the  Union  and  that  railways  are  generally  over-taxed  and  are  bear- 
ing the  burden  of  taxation  of  private  owners,  whose  very  property  has 
been  enhanced  in  value  by  the  construction  of  the  railroads. 

The  growth  in  population  in  twenty  years  has  been  46.2  per  cent, 
while  the  growth  in  traffic  on  railroads  has  increased  186.5  per  cent  in 
passenger  and  235.5  per  cent  in  freight,  or  an  increase  in  all  traffic  of 
over  200  per  cent  in  the  same  period,  while  the  receipts  per  unit  of  ser- 
vice have  decreased  nearly  20  per  cent.  To  move  promptly,  safely  and 
economically  the  tremendous  business  of  this  country  requires  the  applica- 
tion of  scientific  and  systematic  methods  of  the  highest  order. 

There  is  no  finer  illustration  of  systematic  operation  than  the  dis- 
patching of  trains  on  our  railways.  Every  American  railway  of  any  con- 
sequence is  governed  in  the  operation  of  its  trains  by  tho  Code  of  Train 
Eules  of  the  American  Railway  Association.  This  set  of  rules  has  no 
equal  in  the  operation  of  any  industry,  and  if  literally  observed  by  the 
human  agents  to  whom  it  must  be  intrusted,  accidents  on  railways  due  to 
train  movement  would  be  unknown. 

The  physical  and  mental  examination  of  employees  has  been  generally 
introduced  on  railways.  The  selection  of  young  men  for  the  service  living 
along  the  lines  of  road  insures  a  better  class  of  employees,  makes  the  en- 
forcement of  discipline  more  effective  and  improves  the  esprit  de  corps. 

The  movement  of  our  passenger  trains,  such  as  the  operation  of  the 
fast  passenger  schedules  between  New  York  and  Chicago,  a  distance  of 
nearly  one  thousand  miles,  in  eighteen  hours,  or  at  the  rate  of  over  fifty 
miles  per  hour  'sustained  speed,  is  one  of  the  outgrowths  of  scientific 
operation. 

One  of  the  most  important  elements  of  modern  transportation  is 
the  adequate  provision  for  terminal  facilities  to  handle  expeditiously  the 
large  and  rapidly  growing  traffic  of  our  country.  So  large  has  been  the 
increase  of  traffic  that  terminal  facilities  are  outgrown  in  capacity  in  from 
ten  to  twenty  years.  The  Pennsylvania  Railroad  Company  during  the 
past  five  years  has  expended  over  one  hundred  million  dollars  to  provide 
passenger  terminals  in  New  York  City  alone,  and  the  Xew  York  Central 
road  is  engaged  in  a  similiar  enterprise  at  the  present  time. 

The  vast  expenditures  add  ^but  little  to  the  return  for  the  service 


SAMUEL  M.  FELTON,    '73  239 

rendered,  which  is  based  on  the  distance  hauled  between  terminals,  but 
it  adds  greatly  to  the  cost  of  transportation  and  much  to  the  convenience 
of  the  public. 

The  introduction  of  labor  saving  devices  in  the  handling  of  freight  in 
large  freight  stations  and  on  export  and  import  docks  by  means  of  me- 
chanical devices  has  greatly  reduced  the  .unit  cost  of  this  class  of  service 

Within  the  past  year  a  large  freight  station  has  been  erected  in  St. 
Louis  for  the  Missouri,  Kansas  &  Texas  Railway,  in  which  all  freight  will 
be  handled  by  means  of  an  electric  telpherage  system,  the  use  of  hand 
trucks  being  entirely  abolished. 

The  use  of-  electric  trucks  for  handling  baggage  and  freight  has  been 
put  in  use  on  a  number  of  railroads.  On  the  Erie  Railroad  twenty  of 
these  trucks  have  been  put  in  use  on  the  piers  of  that  company  in  Jersey 
City.  Their  use  has  already  shown  a  saving  of  30  per  cent  of  the  cost  of 
handling  freight  over  the  previous  method  of  handling  by  hand  trucks. 

The  success  of  the  iron  and  steel  industry  in  this  country  is  largely 
due  to  the  progress  made  in  the  transportation,  loading  and  unloading 
of  ore. 

The  development  of  ore  traffic  has  been  greatly  enhanced  by  the  con- 
struction of  loading  docks.  The  first  dock  was  built  in  1860  at  Marquette, 
Michigan,  and  was  the  model  from  which  all  the  great  ore  docks  of  the 
northwest  have  since  been  built.  The  ore  was  brought  down  from  the 
mines  on  sledges  in  the  winter  and  transported  by  lake  as  soon  as  naviga- 
tion opened.  The  docks  are  now  arranged  so  that  boats  are  loaded  along- 
side. The  ore  is  brought  from  the  mines  in  railway  cars  and  dumped  into 
chutes.  From  the  chutes  it  flows  by  gravity  into  the  vessels.  By  this 
principle,  it  is  now  possible  to  load  boats  of  10,000  tons  capacity  in  one 
hour.  At  the  present  time  there  are  fifty-eight  docks  with  a  total  com- 
bined capacity  of  over  one  million  gross  tons  of  ore,  located  at  the  head  of 
Lake  Superior. 

The  loading  of  boats  from  the  docks  at  the  head  of  the  lakes  was  a  com- 
paratively simple  matter,  but  the  unloading  of  the  vessels  at  destination 
was  a  tedious  and  expensive  process.  For  years,  the  material  was  unloaded 
from  the  hold  of  the  vessels  entirely  by  hand.  Later  it  was  hoisted  to  the 
deck  by  horse  power  and  dumped  into  barrows  and  wheeled  to  shore.  In 
1867,  horse  power  was  abandoned  and  small  hoisting  engines  were  used, 
but  it  was  still  necessary  to  wheel  the  material  from  the  deck  of  vessels 
to  shore.  In  1880,  the  first  successful  unloading  device  by  mechanical 
means  was  developed  at  Cleveland,  Ohio,  by  which  the  construction  of  a 
cable-way  on  which  trolleys  carrying  a  ton  ore  bucket  traveled,  the  bucket 


240  SCIENTIFIC   MANAGEMENT   OF   AMERICAN   RAILWAYS 

being  raised  and  lowered  into  the  hold  of  the  vessel  by  a  single  drum 
steam-engine.  The  buckets  were  filled  by  hand  in  the  hold  of  the  vessel. 
This  type  of  machine  was  a  great  improvement  over  the  old  methods,  but 
could  only  cover  a  limited  storage  pile.  The  next  machine  used  was  a  180 
foot  structure  bridge  span,  with  both  its  supporting  piers  mounted  on 
wheels  so  that  the  machine  could  be  moved  along  the  length  of  the  dock. 
These  machines  were  later  improved  upon  by  increasing  the  length  by 
a  rear  cantilever  so  that  ore  could  be  stored  in  two  parallel  piles,  one 
under  the  main  span  with  a  capacity  of  about  two  hundred  and  twenty  tons 
per  lineal  foot  and  one  under  which  the  cantilever  projection,  with  about 
the  same  capacity,  making  about  four  hundred  and  fifty  tons  capacity  per 
lineal  foot  of  dock. 

Even  with  these  improved  means,  it  was  still  necessary  to  fill  the 
buckets  in  the  hold  of  the  vessel  by  hand,  which  co>st  about  thirteen 
cents  per  ton,  and  the  cost  of  handling  ore  from  the  vessels  on  to  the  stor- 
age piles  ranged  fron  cne  to  two  cents  per  ton. 

The  problem  of  reducing  hand  labor  in  the  unloading  of  boats  be- 
came such  an  important  factor  that  mechanical  means  for  loading  the 
buckets  resulted  in  the  invention  of  the  grab  bucket  in  1900,  the  first 
successful  grab  bucket  equipment  being  erected  in  Chicago  in  that  year. 
This  introduced  a  radical  change  in  the  design  of  the  plants,  and  also  in 
the  design  of  the  boats.  Up  to  this  time  the  material  had  been  handled 
in  tubs  of  about  one  ton  capacity.  The  grab  bucket  has  been  increased  in 
size  until  now  grab  buckets  from  five  to  fifteen  tons  capacity  are  in  suc- 
cessful use.  With  the  grab  bucket  no  men  were  needed  in  the  vessel  for 
successful  operation;  hand  filling  tubs  were  dispensed  with,  and  from  the 
old  tedious  process  of  unloading  vessels  by  hand  at  a  cost  of  from  fifteen 
to  twenty-five  cents  per  ton,  with  the  use  of  modern  unloading  machinery 
a  cargo  of  9,306  gross  tons  has  been  unloaded  in  fifteen  hours  and  thirty 
minutes  at  a  cost  of  1.11  cents  per  ton. 

The  use  of  the  gravity  yard  for  assorting  cars  has  become  recognized 
on  American  railways  as  a  rapid,  economical  and  efficient  method  of 
switching  cars  as  compared  with  the  old  system,  or  what  is  known  as 
"flat"  switching.  The  capacity  of  a  single  classification  yard  of  this 
type  is  from  3,000  to  4,000  cars  in  twenty-four  hours  by  the  use  of  one 
engine  and  switching  crew  as  compared  with  five  engines  and  crews  in 
flat  switching.  A  plan  showing  a  typical  gravity  yard  will  be  found  in 
the  illustration  on  page  241. 


SAMUEL  M.  FELTON,   '73 


241 


TRAFFIC 

The  classifying  and  prescribing  of  rates  for  the  transportation  of 
freight  and  passengers,  and  the  development  of  the  business  of  the  railway, 
comprise  the  principal  functions  of  the  traffic  department. 

Recent  years  have  brought  about  radical  changes  in  the  conditions 
under  which  this  branch  of  the  service  must  work.  Formerly,  the  rail- 
ways were  permitted  tc  make  rates  which  would  secure  for  them  the 


Plan 


Bast  Bound  Solid  Train  5fara 


FIG.  6 


maximum  amount  of  traffic,  and  the  wholesale  and  retail  principle  which 
applies  to  every  other  line  of  business  was  followed  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent  by  the  railways  in  their  rate  making.  Under  existing  State  and 
Federal  laws,  undue  discrimination  is  not  only  prohibited  hetween  indi- 
viduals, but  between  localities  as  well. 

These  same  laws  and  the  rulings  of  the  various  Commissions  in  the 
matter  of  publication  of  tariffs  and  notices  to  the  public  covering  freight 
and  passenger  rates  have  largely  increased  not  only  the  burden  but  the 
expenses  of  the  traffic  department. 


242 


SCIENTIFIC   MANAGEMENT   OF   AMERICAN   RAILWAYS 


At  the  same  time  the  efficiency  of  the  Department  has  very  much  in- 
creased. With  the  abolition  of  rebates  and  special  concessions,  it  is  placed 
upon  a  firm  basis  and  given  an  opportunity  to  promote  the  betterment 
of  the  service. 

The  location  of  industries  which  will  contribute  to  the  upbuilding  of 
the  tonnage  of  carriers,  is  an  important  part  of  the  work  to  which  much 
time  and  attention  is  given. 

The  organization  of  industrial  and  immigration  bureaus  has  been  pro- 
ductive of  much  good  to  both  the  country  and  the  railways,  and  has  been 
the  means  of  building  up  large  industrial  centers  and  increasing  the  pros- 
perity of  communities. 

The  introduction  of  interline  tickets  for  the  transportation  of  pas- 
sengers, and  through  routes  and  joint  rates  for  freight  shipments,  has 
proven  of  great  benefit  to  the  general  public. 

The  establishment  of  fast  freight  lines  between  large  shipping  cen- 
ters has  brought  about  a  system  of  freight  transportation  which  is  un- 
equaled  in  any  other  country  in  the  world. 

GROWTH  OF  TRAFFIC  ON  PENNSYLVANIA  KAILROAD 
The  progress  and  development  of  American  railways  and  the  applica- 
tion of  scientific  practice  in  their  management  is  well  illustrated  on  the 
Pennsylvania  Eailroad.     From  the  very  beginning  its  policy  has  been  to 
intrust  its  management  to  men  of  scientific  training. 

A  diagram  is  herewith  presented  showing  the  tonnage  and  revenue 
per  ton  mile  for  freight  traffic  and  the  number  of  passengers  handled  and 
the  revenue  per  passenger  mile,  for  the  period  1865  to  1910. 


1865. 

1910. 

Tons  of  freight  moved  1  mile  ... 

452,183,478 

20,297,992,333 

Average  gross  receipts  per  ton  mile  ... 

2.715c. 

0.583c. 

Average  expenses  per  ton  mile 

2  347  c 

0  412  c. 

Net  receipts  per  ton  mile 

0  368  c 

0  171  c. 

4 

The  average  expenses  per  ton  mile  in  1910  were  only  one-sixth  the 
cost  in  1865,  and  the  net  receipts  about  one-half. 

The  decrease  in  freight  rates  from  1865  to  1910  on  the  Pennsylvania 
Railroad  indicates  that  if  the  average  gross  revenue  per  ton  mile  of  1865 
had  remained  the  same  from  that  year  to  1910,  the  increase  in  freight 
revenue  alone  on  that  road  would  have  been  $6,778,793,587.61.  This 
amount  is  equal  to  about  ten  times  the  present  capitalization  of  the  Penn- 
sylvania Eailroad  Company. 


SAMUEL  M.  FELTON,  >?3 


243 


EAILWAY  ASSOCIATIONS 

In  the  early  days  of  railway  operation  each  independent  road  con- 
ducted its  affairs  according  to  rules  and  regulations  peculiarly  4ts-  own. 


PENNSYLVANIA  RAILROAD  -  PASSENGER  BUSINESS 

33,075,856,013  @  .03748  =  $881,444,533.21 

666,565,889.38 

314,878,633.83 


Passengers  One  Mile  1865  to  1910 

Total  Revenue 18C5  to  1910 

Difference 


Year 


Ave.  Revenue  and  Expenses  per  Passenger  per  Mile  in  Cents 


Millions  of  Passengers  One  Mile 


FIG.  7 


As  railway  mileage  and  traffic  increased  and  the  interchange  of  traffic  be- 
came necessary,  associations  were  formed  for  the  purpose  of  developing 
uniform  rules  and  regulations  for  the  purpose  of  promoting  the  efficiency 
and  safety  of  operation. 


244 


SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT   OF  AMERICAN  RAILWAYS 


The  results  secured  through  the  action  of  these  associations  have  es- 
tablished a  uniform  and  scientific  basis  for  conducting  the  vast  transporta- 
tion business  of  this  country. 


PENNSYLVANIA  RAILROAD. 
FREIGHT  BUSINESS 

Tons  One  Mile  18tJ5to  MO 339,361,569,671  @  .02715  =$8,943,166,616.57 

Total  Revenue  1865  to  1910 2,163,373,028.96 

Difference..  _  6,778,793,587.61 


Years. 


Average  Revenue  and  Expenses  per  Ton  per  Mile  in  uents 


0.1  0.2  0.3  0.4  0.5  0.6  0.7  0,8  0.9  1.0 1.11.2  1.3  1.4  1.5  1.6  1.7 1.8  1.9  2.02.12.2  2.3  2.4  2.5  2.6  2. 


Years. 


Millions  of  Tons  One  Mile. 


2000   4000 


8000    10000   12000    14000   16000   180CO   20000 


1865 


1870 


1875 


1880 


1890 


1895 


1900 


1905 


1910 


FIG.  8 


There  are  at  present  over  twenty  railway  associations,  national  in  their 
character,  devoted  to  subjects  connected  with  the  operation  of  our  rail- 
ways. Among  the  most  important  of  these  are  The  American  Railway 


SAMUEL  M.  FELTON,   '73  245 

Association,  The  Master  Car  Builders'  Association,  The  American  Eailway 
Master  Mechanics'  Association,  the  American  Eailway  Engineering  Associ- 
ation, The  Association  of  Transportation  and  Car  Accounting  Officers  and 
The  Association  of  American  Eailway  Accounting  Officers.  A  brief  ac- 
count of  the  purpose  of  each  of  the  above  organizations  is  given  to  indicate 
their  character  and  scope  and  the  extent  to  which  they  have  contributed 
toward  placing  the  transportation  business  upon  a  sound  basis. 

THE  AMERICAN  EAILWAY  ASSOCIATION 

This  association  had  its  origin  in  1872  and  was  known  as  "  The 
General  Time  Convention,"  the  object  of  which  was  semi-annual  meetings 
for  the  arangement  of  schedules  of  through  passenger  trains  between 
the  east  and  west  and  intermediate  connections.  The  first  important  co- 
operative work  of  this  body  was  the  detailed  system  of  Standard  Time 
adopted  November  18,  1883,  in  the  United  States  and  Canada.  Previous 
to  that  date,  every  railway  ran  its  trains  by  the  local  time  of  the  city  where 
its  headquarters  were  located  or  some  other  arbitrary  standard.  There 
were  over  fifty  standards  of  time  in  use,  each  differing  from  the  others. 
On  the  above  date,  these  were  resolved  into  four  standards,  based  upon 
Greenwich  meridian  time,  with  a  difference  of  one  hour  between  them. 
Cities  and  towns  throughout  the  country  generally  conformed  to  the  new 
standard  until  now  it  is  almost  universal  throughout  this  country. 

Prior  to  1883,  the  hand,  lamp,  whistle,  color  and  bell  cord  signalling 
in  use  on  railways  varied  greatly.  In  some  instances,  the  signals  in  use 
on  one  road  would  convey  exactly  the  opposite  meaning  on  adjoining 
roads.  A  code  of  uniform  train  signals  was  adopted  November  16,  1884. 
Many  other  subjects  of  railway  operation  were  harmonized  and  made  uni- 
form, and  in  April,  1891,  the  name  of  the  Time  Convention  was  changed 
to  The  American  Eailway  Association,  and  its  object  extended  to  include 
"the  discussion  and  recommendation  of  methods  for  the  management 
and  operation  of  American  railways."  Its  action  is  recommendatory  and 
not  binding  on  its  members.  Meetings  are  held  semi-annually.  The  work 
of  the  association  is  mainly  accomplished  through  committees. 

The  standing  committees  of  the  association  embrace  the  following: 
Transportation;  Maintenance;  Electrical  Working;  Belations  between 
Eailroads;  Car  Service;  Safe  Transportation  of  Explosives;  Interchange 
of  Freight  Cars. 

The  important  work  performed  by  the  association  includes  a  Standard 
Code  of  Train  Eules,  governing  the  movement  of  trains;  Block  Signals 


246          SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT  OF  AMEEICAN  BAILWAYS 

and  Interlocking  Eules;  Per  Diem  Kule,  providing  for  the  use  of  cars  by 
shippers  delayed  in  loading  or  unloading;  Physical  Examination  of  Em- 
ployees, and  many  other  matters  concerned  with  the  operation  of  railways, 
which  have  been  adopted  by  over  ninety- five  per  cent  of  the  mileage  of 
American  railways. 

This   association   cooperates   with   other   railway   associations    in   its 
work. 


THE  MASTER  CAR  BUILDERS'  ASSOCIATION 

This  association  was  organized  in  1867  and  has  for  its  object  "  the 
advancement  of  knowledge  concerning  the  construction,  repair  and  ser- 
vice of  railroad  cars,  to  bring  about  uniformity  and  interchangeability  in 
their  parts  and  to  adjust  the  mutual  interests  growing  out  of  their  inter- 
change and  repair."  Its  action  is  recommendatory  and  not  binding  upon 
its  members.  Meetings  are  held  annually.  A  code  of  rules  has  been  es- 
tablished and  uniformly  adopted  by  its  members,  governing  the  condition 
of  and  repairs  to  freight  cars.  Each  company  is  required  to  give  the  same 
care  to  foreign  cars  in  its  possession  as  to  its  own  cars.  Cars  offered  in 
interchange  must  be  accepted  unless  defective,  as  specified  in  the  rules. 
The  methods  of  making  repairs  and  billing  against  owners  of  cars,  with 
schedules  of  charges  for  labor  and  materials,  are  prescribed.  A  Com- 
mittee on  Arbitration  settles  disputes  arising  under  the  rules. 

This  association  established  the  standards  for  automatic  couplers  now 
in  universal  use.  It  has  prescribed  standards  for  construction  and  use  of 
cars  which  are  invaluable. 


THE  AMERICAN  EAILWAY  MASTER  MECHANICS'  ASSOCIATION 

This  association  was  organized  in  1868.  Its  objects  are  the  advance- 
ment of  knowledge  concerning  the  principles  of  construction,  repair  and 
service  of  the  rolling  stock  of  railways.  Its  work  is  done  through  com- 
mittees which  take  up  such  questions  as  coal  consumption  of  locomotives, 
standards  of  locomotive  construction,  specification  and  tests  for  boiler 
tubes,  air  brake  and  signal  construction,  equipment  and  appliances  for 
shops  and  power  houses  and  safety  appliances  for  locomotives.  Through 
the  work  of  this  association  the  efficiency  of  American  locomotives,  their 
construction,  repair  and  maintenance,  has  been  perfected. 


SAMUEL  M.  FELTON,    '73  L247 

AMERICAN  RAILWAY  ENGINEERING  ASSOCIATION 

This  association  was  organized  in  1899.  Its  object  is  the  economical 
location,  construction,  operation  and  maintenance  of  railways.  The  work 
is  accomplished  through  nineteen  standing  committees  covering  the  follow- 
ing subjects:  Roadway,  Ballast,  Ties,  Rail,  Track,  Buildings,  Wooden 
Bridges  and  Trestles,  Masonry,  Signs,  Fences  and  Crossings,  Signals  and 
Interlocking,  Records  and  Accounts,  Rules  and  Organization,  Water  Ser- 
vice, Yards  and  Terminals,  Iron  and  Steel  Structures,  Economics  of  Rail- 
way Location,  Wood  Preservation,  Electricity,  Conservation  of  Natural 
Resources. 

This  association  has  performed  a  large  amount  of  work  in  the  estab- 
lishing of  standards  for  maintenance  of  way  and  track  structures  and  prin- 
ciples of  practice  covering  the  maintenance  of  way  department. 

THE  ASSOCIATION  OF  TRANSPORTATION  AND  CAR  ACCOUNTING  OFFICERS. 

This  association  was  formed  in  May,  1904,  by  the  consolidation  of  the 
International  Association  of  Car  Accountants  and  Car  Service  Officers, 
organized  in  1876,  and  the  Railway  Transportation  Association,  organ- 
ized in  1899.  Its  object  is  to  promote  improvements  in  methods  of  car  ser- 
vice, car  accounting  and  transportation.  It  provides  a  system  of  compila- 
tion of  statistics  of  car  movements  and  records  of  interchange  of  cars 
between  railways.  Since  the  value  of  a  freight  car  is  based  upon  its 
average  earnings  of  from  $2.00  to  $3.00  per  day,  the  importance  of  this 
regulation  and  accounting  system  is  evident. 

THE  ASSOCIATION  OF  RAILWAY  ACCOUNTING  OFFICERS 

This  association  was  organized  in  1888.  Its  objects  are  to  better 
generally  the  conducting  of  the  accounts  of  transportation  lines;  to  aid 
and  secure  a  more  perfect  means  of  determining  balances  between  the  com- 
panies and  a  prompt  settlement  therefor ;  uniformity  in  the  adjustment  of 
joint  acounts;  systematic  settlement  of  claims  between  carriers;  system* 
atizing  collection  of  freight  charges  at  competing  points;  uniformity  in 
governmental  reports  required  of  railroads,  and  a  general  systematization 
of  railway  accounts. 

This  association  has  cooperated  with  the  Interstate  Commerce  Com- 
mission in  formulating  a  classification  of  accounts  for  railways  and  is 
largely  responsible  for  the  classification  now  in  effect. 

In  addition  to  the  above  associations,  there  are  many  others  dealing 


248       SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT  OF  AMEEICAN  RAILWAYS 

with  special  subjects  of  railway  work,  such  as  the  Association  of  Eailway 
Telegraph  Superintendents,  having  to  do  with  the  improvement  to  tele- 
graph service;  the  Train  Dispatchers'  Association  of  America,  which  pre- 
scribes the  best  methods  of  moving  trains  by  telegraph;  The  Association 
of  Railway  Surgeons,  which  has  for  its  object  the  development  and  im- 
provement of  railway  surgery;  The  National  Association  of  Car  Service 
Managers,  which  has  for  its  object  the  promotion  of  methods  for  the  prompt 
movement  of  freight  cars  in  interchange  with  railways,  and  in  loading 
and  unloading  by  shippers;  The  Eailway  Signal  Association,  which  has  for 
its  object  the  advancement  of  knowledge  concerning  the  design,  construc- 
tion, maintenance  and  operation  of  railway  signal  appliances;  The  Associ- 
ation of  General  Passenger  and  Ticket  Agents,  which  has  provided  a  system 
of  interline  coupon  tickets;  The  American  Association  of  General  Bag- 
gage Agents,  which  has  devised  a  system  of  transportation  of  baggage  with 
a  view  to  securing  greater  efficiency  and  uniformity  in  practice  and  facili- 
tating the  prompt  handling  of  baggage ;  The  Association  of  Railway  Claim 
Agents,  which  has  prescribed  means  for  the  investigation  of  claims  and 
their  prompt  adjustment;  and  many  other  minor  railway  organizations, 
all  of  which  have  promoted  the  general  efficiency  of  railway  service. 

The  progress  made  in  the  period  referred  to  shows  how  carefully  and 
sytematically  the  development  of  the  railway  business  of  this  country  has 
been  conducted.  No  other  industry  of  such  magnitude  can  show  as  great 
advancement  during  the  past  sixty  years. 

It  is  hoped  this  paper  may  be  filed  in  the  archives  of  the  Massachu- 
setts Institute  of  Technology  and  that  at  the  centenary  celebration  of  the 
Institute,  some  graduate  then  engaged  in  railway  management,  may  be 
persuaded  to  write  the  history  of  railway  development  up  to  that  time,  when 
some  interest  in  a  comparative  way  may  attach  to  this  document. 


SAMUEL  M.  FELTON,   '73 


249 


1850  PASSENGER  LOCOMOTIVE 


Weight  on  Drivers  (Approx.)          15000  Lbs. 

Weight  on  Trucks  (Approx.) 30000  Lbs .      Weight,  Total  (Approx.) 45000  Lbs . 

Tractive  Effort  (Approx.) 3750  Lbs.        Boiler  Pressure(Approx.) 100  Lbs. 

FIG.  9 


1850  FREIGHT  LOCOMOTIVE 


Weight  on  Drivers  (Approx.) 28000  Lbs. 

Weight  on  Trucks  (Approx.)- -19000  Lbs.  Weight,  Total  ( Approx.) 45000  Lbs. 

Tractive  Effort  (Approx.) 6500  Lbs.     Boiler  Pressure  (Approx.) 100  Lbs. 

FIG.  10 


250 


SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT   OF  AMERICAN  RAILWAYS 


1860  PASSENGER  LOCOMOTIVE 


Weight  on  Drivers  (Approx.) 40675  Lbs. 

Weight  on  Trucks  (Approx.) 20125  Lbs.       Weight,  Total  (Approx.). 63800  Lbs. 

Tractive  Effort  (Approx.) 10170  Lbs.        Boiler  Pressure  (Approx.) 120  Lbs. 

FIG.  11 


1860  FREIGHT  LOCOMOTIVE 


I* —  — 23V H 

Weight  on  Drivers  (Approx.) 49000  Lbs. 

Weight  on  Trucks  ( Approx.).  _  .18000  Lbs.  Weight,  Total  (Approx,) 67000  Lbs. 

Tractive  Effort  (Approx.) 12250  Lbs.    Boiler  Pressure  (Approx.) 120  Lbs. 

FIG.  12 


SAMUEL  M.  FELTON,   '73 


251 


1870  PASSENGER  LOCOMOTIVE 


±a 


Weight  on  Drivers  (Approx.).  _.  __.49000  Lbs. 

Weight  on  Trucks  (Approx.) 26000  Lbs.     Weight,  Total  (Approx.) 75000  Lbs. 

Tractive  Effort  (Approx.) 12350  Lbs.       Boiler  Pressure  (Approx.)— ^125  Lbs. 


FIG.  13 


1870  -  FREIGHT  LOCOMOTIVE 


Weight  on  Drivers  (Approx.) 79000  Lbs. 

Weight  on  Trucks  (Approx.). . . . 9000  Lbs.    Weight.  Total  (Approx .)....  88000  Lbs. 
Tractive  Effort  (Approx.) 19750  Lbs.     Boiler  Pressure  (Approx.)....  125  Lbs. 

FIG.  14 


252 


SCIENTIFIC   MANAGEMENT   OF  AMERICAN   RAILWAYS 


T 


— <°>  1880  PASSENGER  LOCOMOTIVE 


Weight  oa  Drivers  (Approx.) 55585  Lbs. 

Weight  oa  Trucks  (Approx.) 34175  Lbs.     Weight,  Total  (Approx.) 79760  Lbs. 

Tractive  Effort  (Approx.) 13896  Lbs.      Boiler  Pressure  (Approx.) 140  Lbs. 

Fro.  15 


T 


-^^   1880  FREIGHT  LOCOMOTIVE 


i    f 


i  ^      138  Tu 


138  Tubes  2HDia. 


Weight  oa  Drivers  (Approx.) 82700  Lbs. 

Weight  oa  Trucks  (Approx.). -.13000  Lbs.  Weight,  Total  (Approx.) 95700  Lbs. 

Tractive  Effort  (Approx.) 20675  Lbs.   Boiler  Pressure  (Approx.) 125  Lbs. 


FIG.  16 


SAMUEL  M.  FELTON,   '73 


253 


1890  PASSENGER  LOCOMOTIVE 


Weight  on  Drivers  (Approx.) 77200  Lbs. 

Weight  on  Trucks  (Approx.) 35000  Lbs.  Weight,  Total  (Approx.) 112200  Lbs. 

Tractive  Effort  (Approx.) 19300  Lbs.  Boiler  Pressure  (Approx.) 160  Lbs. 

FIG.  17 


1890  FREIGHT  LOCOMOTIVE 


-1     ^-LsP     u  ^  °^ 

^6^-40^—55* 


'• — >H— 55*— 4*-  ~  -56-  -  -^f-  -  -55-— 4s 90" *\ 


Weight  on  Drivers  (Approx.) 113000  Lbs. 

Weight  on  Trucks  ( Approx. )__. 15600  Lbs.    Weight,  Total  (Approx.) 128600  Lbs. 

Tractive  Effort  (Approx.) 28250  Lbs.     Boiler  Pressure  (Approx.) 140  Lbs. 


FIG.  18 


254  SCIENTIFIC   MANAGEMENT   OF  AMEEICAN  EAILWAYS 


1900- PASSENGER  LOCOMOTIVE 


Lp 315_Tubes_2J}ia.- 

K~44~/o  "-"T^      '  lu~i 

J 


Weight  on  Drivers  (Approx.)         109000  Lbs. 

Weight  on  Trucks  (Approx.)      67600  Lbs.  Weight,  Total  (Approx.) 
Tractive  Effort  (Approx.)          27250  Lbs.  Boiler  Pressure  (Approx.) 

FIG.  19 


176600  Lbs. 
205  Lbs. 


1900-FREIGHT  LOCOMOTIVE 


Weight  on  Drivers  (Approx.)        160000  Lbs. 

Weight  on  Trucks  (Approx.)     20000  Lbs.    Weight,  Total  (Approx.)        180000  Lbs. 

3tive  Effort  (Approx.)          40000  Lbs.  Boiler  Pressure  (Approx.)          305  Lbs. 

FIG.  20 


SAMUEL  M.  FELTON,   '73 


255 


1910  -PASSENGER  LOCOMOTIVE 


Weight  on  Drivers  (Approx.) 178500  Lbs. 

Weight  on  Trucks  (Approx.)___93500  Lbs.  Weight,  Total  ( Approx. ).__  272000  Lbs. 
Tractive  Effort  (Approx.) 44625  Lbs.  Boiler  Pressure  (Approx.).__  205  Lbs. 

FIG.  21 


1910  FREIGHT  LOCOMOTIVE 


T 


Weight  on  Drivers  (Approx.) 216450  Lbs. 

Weight  on  Trucks  ( Approx. )„__ 24495  Lbs.    Weight,  Total  (Approx.).. .240945  Lbs. 
Tractive  Effort  (Approx.) 54110  Lbs.  Boiler  Pressure  (Approx.) 205  Lbs. 

FIG.  22 


256  SCIENTIFIC   MANAGEMENT   OF    AMERICAN   RAILWAYS 


1910  SPECIAL  PASSENGER   LOCOMOTIVE 


Weight  on  Drivers  (Approx.) 210000  Lbs. 

Weight  on  Trucks  (Approx.).  ,.75000  Lbs.    Weight,  Total  (Approx.)- -.285000  Lbs. 
Tractive  Effort  (Approx.) 51720  Lbs.     Boiler  Pressure  ( Approx. )._. 300  Lbs. 

FIG.  23 


SANTA-FE  SPECIAL  MALLET  LOCOMOTIVE 


Weight  on  Drivers  (Approx.) 550000  LTos. 

Weight  on  Trucks  (Approx.)___66000  Lbs.  Weight,  Total  ( Approx. )__  616000  Lbs. 
Tractive  Effort  (Approx.) 137500  LIDS.   Boiler  Pressure  (Approx.) 225  Lbs. 

FIG.  24 


SAMUEL  M.  FELTOtt,   '73 


257 


Cylinders  li'Dia. 
x  15"Stroke 


SOUTHERN  PACIFIC  LOCOMOTIVE  NO.  1 
,  Boiler  34"Dia. 
88  Tubes  2"Dia. 


Weight  on  Drivers  (Approx.) 18500  Lba. 

Weight  on  Trucks  (Approx.) 30500  Lbs. 

Weight,  Total  (Approx.) 39000  Lbs. 

Tractive  Effort  (Approx.) 4035  Lbs. 

Boiler  Pressure  (Approx.) 135  Lbs. 


FIG.  25 


r 


SOUTHERN  PACIFIC 
COMPOUND  MALLET  CONSOLIDATED  LOCOMOTIVE 


95.9H  J^olaLLength  of  Engine  and  Tender 


Weight  on  Drivers  (Approx.) 394700  Lbs. 

Weight  on  Trucks  (Approx.). .43300  Lbs.  Weight,  Total  (Approx.) 430000  Lbs. 

Tractive  Effort  (Approx.)  ___  94880  Lbs.  Boiler  Pressure  (Approx.) 300  Lbs. 

FIG.  26 


258  SCIENTIFIC   MANAGEMENT   OF   AMERICAN   RAILWAYS 


TYPICAL  PASSENGER  LOCOMOTIVES  1850  TO  1910 


Weights  and  Tractive  Effort  in  Thousands  of  Pounds 

Steam  Pressure  in  Pounds. 
0  50  100  150  300 


Weight  of  Engine 


Weight  on  Drivers 


FIG.  27 


SAMUEL  M.  FELTON,    '73 


259 


TYPICAL  FREIGHT  LOCOMOTIVES  1850TO  1910. 
Weights  and  Tractive  Effort  in  Thousands  of  Pounds 

Steam  Pressure  in  Pounds. 
50  100  150  300 


FIG.  28 


200  SCIENTIFIC    MANAOKMKNT    OF   AMERICAN   RAILWAYS 


1850 -PASSENGER  COACH 


cn  n  cu  CD  a  m  o  en  en  n  en  n  en  n 
a  o  n  a  a  n  n  CD  n  en  n  o  a  CD 


Length 32 '0"    Width 8' 6"          Seating  Capacity 

Wood  Construction  Throughout 

FIG.  20 


1860  PASSENGER  COACH 


•E 

3* 

HHH 

H 

— 

h 

FEE 

—  — 

h 

Hh 

i__ 

h 

—  :  

13 

0) 

^uu 

uu 

nn 

uuuu 
nnnn 

n 
n 

U 

n 

1  ILX        x_  m 

nnnT-Li 

Length—  43V    Width— 9':"  Seating  Capacitj — 58 
Wood  Construction  Throughout 

FIG.  30 


SAMUEL  M.  FELTON,    73 


1870  PASSENGER  COACH 


uuuuuuuuuuuu 
,n  n  n  n  n  n  n  n  n  n  n 


Length— 43'4"    Width—  9  3    Seating  Capacity — 
Wood  Construction  Throughout 

FIG.  31 


1880 -PASSENGER  COACH 

iiaiaaiaiaaa 


BBQBBBBBBBBBBBBB 


UUUUUUUUUUUUUUUU 

nnnnnnnnnnnnnnnn 


Length iG'8" 


Widtn 9'tt" 

FIG.  32 


Seating  Capacity. 64 


2()2  SCIENTIFIC   MANAGEMENT   OF   AMERICAN   KAILWAYS 


1890  PASSENGER  COACH 


1 

is 


UUUUUUUUUUULJL|^ 

n  nn  nnnnnnnnnrrb 


Length. 


t>3'0' 


'Width. 


.  9  '8"          Seating  Capacity 62 


Narrow  Vestibule 
FIG.  33 


1900  PASSENGER  COACH 


D  A 


JUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUUU 

innnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnn 


I, 


Length  auside) 78'  0"         Width  (Inside) lO'o"          Seating  Capacity ! 

Full  Vestibule 

FIG.  34 


SAMUEL  M.  FELTON,    '73 


263 


1910  PASSENGER  COACH 


©  ©  ©' 


Ljuuuuuuu  uuuuuuLJUUu 
nnnnnnnn  nmnrmnnnrm 


Length  (Inside) 81  4         Width  (Inside) 10  0          Seating  Capacity. 

Full  Vestibule  Stool  Construction  Throughout 

FIG.  35- 


\ 

1850  BOX  CAR 

.\\           !'         >'/                              ^^                      //        Length  (Inside)  2/6 

^     //        // 
\\  /  '           / 

v<\                   //'           Weight 

13000 

\^                            Capacity  

..16000 

(§3 

I    ^^^  J 

(   ^^^__^pp]   ) 

\__  2 

\^  ^/ 

xr5       v_^y 

cs= 

i 

FIG.  36 

F 

\ 
^  \ 

\\ 
\  \ 

\v 
\\ 

//         /'  '' 
'/         '/ 

1  1                Y> 

//           1  860  BOX  CAR 

\\         X\\            ,';         Length  (Inside)  26'o" 
\\          \\         //          Weight  16000 
\\          '\^  J!             Capacity.  20000 

_             _    s'-ly--     -    -  =q 

rS 

=L  s  -  ^-^H               \\^^-^^^/—^ 

~^3^F\) 

(    ^^—-^^51   ) 

v  ^/ 

^  y 

V    ^/              V  / 

FIG.  37 


264  SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT  OF  AMERICAN  RAILWAYS 


u^ 

• 

•X 

/  /j 

1  ^ 

\v 

\\ 

// 

j  V-v 

/•/:• 

'  /     1 

v\  \ 

\\ 

ft 

I 

1 

f  f' 

'/        \ 

\\ 

\\ 

,'/ 

N 

// 

/     '                          ' 

^    \ 

^.  v 

1    f 

( 

/''               1 

VA 

_x^ 

±<---.^^---l. 

"1 

s^j* 

itf^ 

^^^ 

j^^- 

^^^ 

^4=,^ 

k 

1870  BOX  CAR 

Length  (Inside) 28'd' 

Weight  , 19000 

Capacity 24000 


FIG.  38 


1880  BOX  CAR 


Length  (Inside)._.. 30'0"  Weight 35000 Lbs.  Capacity 30000  Lbs. 

FIG.  39 


1890  BOX  CAR 


Length  (inside )....34'0tt  Weight___.  31100  Lbs.  Capacity.___. 50000  Lbs. 

FIG.  40 


SAMUEL  M.  FELTON,   '73 


2(>r> 


1 900  BOX  CAR 


9TiT 


Length  (Inside) .__.36'0' 


Weii?M.__    32300  Lbs. 
FIG.  41 


Capacity (JOGOOLbs. 


1910  BOX  CAR 


Length  (Inside).. ..40'Q" 


Weight  -..45300  Lbs. 
Steel  Underfrarae 

FIG.  42 


Capacity.—.-lOOOOO  Lbs. 


26(5 


SCIENTIFIC   MANAGEMENT   OF   AMERICAN   RAILWAYS 


OLD  TYPE  COAL  CAR 


Length  (Inside) —.10 '2" 

Width  (Inside) —  S'll" 

Weight. 7393  Lbs. 

Capacity. leooo  Lbs. 

Timber  Construction 
Throughout. 


FIG.  43 


70  TON  COAL  CAR 


Length  (Inside). ..to'3"    Width  (Inside )._ ,9 (6"  Weight _50TOO  Lbs.  Capacity. .140000  Lbs. 
Steel  Construction  Throughout 

FIG.  44 


SECTION  D. 
RECENT  INDUSTRIAL  DEVELOPMENT 


IMPROVEMENTS    IN   EFFICIENCY    OF    ELECTRIC   LIGHTING 
PROPERTIES  AND  WHAT  THE  PUBLIC  GAINS  THEREBY. 

By  WILLIAM  H.  BLOOD,  Jr.,  '88, 
Technical  Expert,  Stone  &  Webster,  Boston,  Mass. 

THE  expression  that  "  we  make  our  profits  from  what  our  fathers 
wasted,"  is  not  a  platitude.  It  is  a  scientific  statement  capable  of  demon- 
stration. It  is  particularly  applicable  to  the  electric  lighting  industry  and 
we  are  not  obliged  to  go  back  even  to  the  days  of  our  fathers,  for  all  of  the 
important  improvements  have  been  made  in  the  past  twenty  years. 

These  improvements  have  not  been  brought  about  by  accidents  or  by 
revolutionary  inventions  or  by  chance  discoveries,  but  have  been  secured 
through  careful  study  by  educated  men  applying  scientific  methods  to  the 
working  out  of  definite  problems.  That  some  of  the  results  accomplished 
are  almost  miraculous,  we  are  forced  to  admit;  but  that  they  are  hap- 
hazard we  emphatically  deny. 

At  the  present  time,  when  so  much  is  being  said  about  "  efficiency"  and 
"scientific  management,"  and  when  the  public  service  corporation  is  accused 
of  being  "greedy"  and  "unscrupulous,"  it  may  be  well  to  spend  a  few 
moments  in  considering  what  the  application  of  science  to  the  electric  light- 
ing industry  has  accomplished  and  to  what  extent  the  public  has  been 
benefited  thereby. 

In  1888,  two  of  us,  for  our  thesis  work,  tested  the  largest  dynamo  that 
the  Institute  of  Technology  possessed,  and  found  the  highest  ratio  of  elec- 
trical output  to  mechanical  input  to  be  about  70  per  cent.  To-day,  machines 
of  this  size  operate  at  about  85  per  cent,  while  larger  units  give  efficiencies  of 
95  or  even  as  high  as  97  per  cent.  Assuming  that  this  improvement  in 
efficiency  amounts  to  25  per  cent  on  the  average  (which  is  a  low  estimate), 
it  would  mean  that  we  are  to-day  saving  25  per  cent  of  the  fuel  that  we 
should  have  burned  had  there  been  no  improvement  in  electrical  efficiency 
since  the  year  1888. 

Applying  this  figure  to  the  industry  as  a  whole  and  basing  our  estimate 
upon  figures  given  in  the  census  on  the  cost  of  fuel  used  by  the  electric 
light  and  electric  railway  plants  in  the  United  States,  we  prove,  without  fear 

269 


270          IMPROVEMENTS    IN    ELECTEIC    LIGHTING    PEOPEETIES 

of  contradiction,  that  our  electrical  engineers  have  brought  about  the  con- 
servation, for  future  generations,  of  some  $12,000,000  worth  of  coal  per 
year,  and  this  solely  on  account  of  a  single  item, — improvement  in  the 
efficiency  of  electric  generating  machines. 

This  improvement  has  been  accomplished  partly  through  the  increase 
in  the  size  of  the  units.  The  first  commercial  electric  light  plant  in  Boston, 
built  in  1886,  contained  six  machines  having  an  aggregate  capacity  of  about 
230  horse-power.  Two  of  them  were  of  15  horse-power  and  four  of  them 
about  50  horse-power.  In  1888  the  largest  electric  generators  were  of  100 
horse-power,  and  they  were  regarded  as  monsters.  In  fact,  one  machine  of 
approximately  this  size  was  universally  called  a  "  Jumbo."  It  was  thought 
that  the  limit  in  size  had  been  reached  when  we  built  machines  of  100  horse- 
power ;  in  fact  the  writer  of  this  article,  when  it  was  planned  to  build  a  200 
horse-power  machine,  protested,  on  the  ground  that  if  anyone  required  such 
a  large  amount  of  power  he  could  readily  use  two  100  horse-power  machines. 
To-day,  15,000  horse-power  machines  are  common  and  we  are  beginning  to 
instal  units  of  25,000  horse-power.  This  simply  represents  the  evolution 
which  the  trained  engineer  has  brought  about.  The  new  25,000  horse-power 
generators,  besides  being  more  efficient,  are  much  more  reliable  and  are 
little  if  any  more  complicated  than  the  older  and  smaller  machines. 

Only  a  few  days  ago,  it  was  my  privilege  to  examine  a  plant  built  in 
1893,  in  which  the  original  installation  consisted  of  several  3,500  KW 
engine  driven  units.  A  year  or  two  later  the  plant  was  enlarged  by  adding 
5,000  KW  turbines.  To-day,  the  5,000  KW  machines  are  being  replaced 
and  upon  the  same  floor  space  are  being  installed  15,000  KW  units.  These 
15,000  KW  units  occupy  less  than  one-half  the  room  occupied  by  the 
original  3,500  KW  units,  which  means  that  the  operating  company  is  get- 
ting eight  times  the  capacity  on  the  same  floor  space. 

One  of  the  early  electric  power  plants  with  which  I  had  some  connec- 
tion contained  20  dynamos  of  100  horse-power  capacity  each,  which  gave  a 
total  capacity  of  2,000  horse-power,  and  the  floor  space  required  for  the 
entire  plant,  including  boilers  and  engines,  as  well  as  dynamos,  was  9,000 
square  feet,  which  is  equivalent  to  4.5  square  feet  per  horse-power  of 
capacity.  This  same  company  is  to-day  building,  under  the  supervision  of 
some  of  Tech's  illustrious  alumni,  a  new  station  which  is  to  have  an  ultimate 
capacity  of  140,000  horse-power  and  which  will  require  but  slightly  in 
excess  of  one-half  a  square  foot  per  horse-power  of  capacity. 

The  first  plant  represented  an  investment  of  approximately  $225  per 
horse-power,  while  in  the  latter  case  it  will  be  about  $45  per  horse-power. 
Had  there  been  no  improvement  made  along  this  line,  and  had  the  company 


WILLIAM    H.    BLOOD,    JR.,    '88  271 

been  obliged  to  increase  its  capital  account  on  the  basis  of  $225  per  horse- 
power up  to  its  present  total  capacity,  it  would  have  required  an  additional 
investment  of  some  $12,500,000,  which  would  entail  additional  annual  in- 
terest charges  of  $750,000.  But,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  this  additional  charge 
is  obviated  because  the  electrical  and  steam  machinery  has  been  improved 
and  the  costs  of  the  plant  have  been  reduced. 

In  the  early  days  dynamos  were  of  the  belt  driven  type,  which  means 
that  the  power  was  transmitted  from  the  engines  to  the  dynamos  by  heavy 
leather  belts.  In  many  cases  the  engines  were  belted  to  long  shafts  and  the 
power  again  transmitted  by  other  belts  from  these  shafts  to  the  dynamos. 
All  this  entailed  not  only  large  losses  of  power  but  heavy  maintenance 
charges.  This,  in  recent  years,  is  eliminated  by  having  the  dynamos  directly 
connected  to  the  engines  which  drive  them.  Nor  is  this  all.  Instead  of  the 
simple,  high  speed  engines  which  generally  racked  themselves  to  pieces,  we 
now  have  compound  condensing  engines  running  at  low  speed  with  better 
than  clocklike  regularity. 

A  still  further  improvement  in  power  plant  design  requires  the  in- 
stallation of  steam  turbines  of  either  the  horizontal  or  vertical  type.  These 
are  self-contained  rotating  units  which  utilize  the  expansion  of  the  steam  to 
convert  potential  into  kinetic  energy,  thus  obtaining  much  higher  efficiencies 
than  is  possible  with  prime  movers  of  reciprocating  types.  The  steam  tur- 
bine, besides  requiring  much  less  room,  as  has  been  shown,  uses  higher  steam 
pressure  and  higher  vacuum  in  its  condensers,  and  is,  consequently,  more 
efficient,  and  because  of  its  uniform  rotating  motion  is  better  adapted  to 
the  generation  of  electricity  than  the  old  reciprocating  engines. 

There  has  been  a  great  development  in  the  boilers  used  in  power  sta- 
tions. Instead  of  units  of  100  to  125  horse-power,  to-day  600  horse-power  is 
in  general  use  and  boilers  up  to  2,000  horse-power  have  been  made.  In  the 
old  tubular  boilers,  80  to  100  Ibs.  was  the  common  pressure  used.  This 
was  increased  to  125,  then  150,  and  in  the  water  tube  boilers  to-day  200  is 
generally  used.  Improvements  in  superheaters,  combustion  chambers,  auto- 
matic stoking  devices,  condensers,  ash  and  coal  handling  machinery,  ap- 
paratus for  analyzing  flue  gases,  besides  other  miscellaneous  devices,  have 
all  had  their  effect  in  cheapening  the  process  of  converting  the  heat  units 
of  coal  into  steam. 

Turning  again  to  the  electrical  end  of  the  power  station,  the  switch- 
board of  to-day,  though  a  much  more  elaborate  affair,  is,  when  once  installed 
with  its  remote  control  switches  and  automatic  regulating  and  protecting 
devices,  simple  of  manipulation  and  arranged  to  give  the  plant  the  greatest 
flexibility  of  operation. 


272         IMPROVEMENTS    IN   ELECTRIC    LIGHTING   PROPERTIES 

With  the  increase  in  size  of  the  units  and  with  the  development  of  the 
modern  switchboard,  has  come  a  decrease  in  the  number  of  operators  needed, 
so  that  in  the  dynamo  room  in  a  plant  of  5,000  horse-power  capacity  to-day 
there  would  be  required  but  two  or  three  men  on  a  shift,  while  two  decades 
ago  eight  to  ten  men  at  least  would  have  been  required. 

Now  let  us  see  how  all  these  improvements  affect  the  operation  of  a 
power  station.  We  find,  in  looking  up  the  back  records,  that  in  the  early 
days  it  took,  as  a  rule,  ten  or  more  pounds  of  coal  to  produce  one  kilowatt 
hour.  In  many  modern  stations  it  requires  only  three  pounds  of  coal  per 
kilowatt  hour,  and  in  some  cases  even  less  than  this.  This  means  that  only 
30  per  cent  as  much  coal  as  was  demanded  twenty  years  ago  is  now  needed 
to  produce  a  unit  of  electricity. 

What  effect  does  this  have  on  the  cost  of  electricity?  Take  for  a  con- 
crete example  an  electric  light  plant  of  5000  KW  capacity.  Its  first  cost, 
including  distributing  lines,  would  be  approximately  $1,250,000,  and  under 
ordinary  conditions  it  would  have  an  earning  power  of  about  $312,000. 
The  operating  expenses,  including  taxes  and  depreciation,  would  be,  say  65 
per  cent  of  this,  or  $202,800,  which  would  leave  for  interest  on  investment 
and  reserves  $109,200. 

Now  suppose  that  instead  of  having  a  power  station  which  runs  on 
three  pounds  of  coal  per  kilowatt  hour,  it  was  like  those  in  operation  in 
1888  and  consumed  ten  pounds  of  coal  per  kilowatt  hour.  With  the  same 
output  over  300  per  cent  more  coal  would  be  required;  or,  without  boring 
you  with  the  details  of  calculation,  instead  of  producing  a  return  of  8% 
per  cent  on  the  investment  (which  we  assume  is  the  same  in  both  cases) 
there  would  a  deficit  of  about  6  per  cent ;  or,  if  you  please,  stating  the  results 
in  another  way,  while  the  company  has  been  making  systematic  reductions 
in  the  rates  from  16  cents  per  kilowatt  hour  down  to  10  cents  per  kilowatt 
hour,  its  stockholders  have  had  to  be  content  with  a  constant  and  low  rate  of 
return  upon  their  investments.  If  you  will  study  the  records  of  the  electric 
lighting  companies  given  in  the  reports  of  the  Massachusetts  Gas  and  Elec- 
tric Light  Commissioners,  you  will  find  that  this  is  exactly  what  has  taken 
place  in  this  State  at  least.  During  the  last  twenty  years  the  rate  of  return 
on  the  money  actually  invested  has  not  changed  appreciably.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  it  has  decreased  rather  than  increased,  for  electrical  properties  are 
fast  getting  out  of  the  speculative  class  and  are  therefore  satisfying  their 
owners  with  a  slightly  lower  rate  of  return. 

A  specific  instance  of  this  in  the  history  of  one  of  the  larger  Massa- 
chusetts companies  may  be  of  interest.  In  the  first  ten  years  of  the  com- 
pany's existence,  it  paid  dividends  netting  between  5  and  6  per  cent  and  the 


WILLIAM    H.    BLOOD,    JR.,   >88  273 

rate  for  electricity  was  then  25  cents  per  kilowatt  hour.  During  the  past  few 
years  the  return  has  been  about  4^  Per  cent,  whereas  the  rates  have  been 
cut  more  than  50  per  cent  and  now  the  maximum  charge  is  only  11  cents 
per  kilowatt  hour. 

The  effect,  therefore,  of  all  these  improvements  which  have  been  brought 
about  by  careful  scientific  study  and  development,  has  been,  by  increasing  the 
efficiency  of  the  power  stations,  to  reduce  the  cost  of  electricity  to  the  public. 

But  we  have  not  told  the  whole  story  yet.  The  development  of  alter- 
nating current  apparatus  has  enabled  the  electric  lighting  companies  to  dis- 
tribute their  product  from  the  power  station  to  the  consumers  at  a  much  less 
cost  and  has  made  it  possible  to  transmit  it  for  distances  which  were  not 
dreamed  of  in  the  early  days.  Twenty  years  ago  what  little  electricity  was 
used  was  distributed  by  direct  current  and  the  radius  of  activity  was  seldom 
more  than  half  a  mile,  or  a  mile  at  the  most.  This. forced  the  generating 
stations  to  be  placed  upon  expensive  land  near  the  heart  of  the  city,  and  since 
the  voltage  on  a  direct  current  system  is  limited  it  meant  a  large  loss  of 
power  in  transmission  and  required  a  large  investment  in  copper.  However, 
this  has  all  been  changed  by  the  development  of  alternating  current  ap- 
paratus, and  we  now  have  high  voltage  transmission  and  distribution  at  a 
greatly  reduced  cost.  The  introduction  of  this  system  has  also  made  it  pos- 
sible to  locate  factories,  mills  and  shops  anywhere,  instead  as  in  the  old 
days  at  or  near  the  source  of  power.  This  one  fact  alone  has  had  a  wonder- 
fully beneficial  effect  upon  the  entire  industrial  problem  of  the  country. 

High  voltage  transmission  has  further  enabled  us  to  utilize  what  were 
heretofore  useless  and  almost  inaccessible  waterfalls.  Without  this  develop- 
ment, Los  Angeles  would  be  forced  to  burn  thousands  of  barrels  of  oil  each 
day  instead  of  using  the  mountain  streams  two  hundred  miles  away  for  mak- 
ing her  streets  at  night  almost  as  brilliant  as  in  the  day.  But  for  this 
development  Seattle  would  not  be  able  to  utilize  the  melting  snow  and  ice 
from  the  glaciers  of  Mt.  Rainier  to  operate  all  her  street  cars  and  other 
public  utilities.  Without  high-tension  alternating  current  apparatus, 
Niagara  power  could  not  be  transmitted  and  used  in  the  Lake  cities  of 
Canada,  or  in  Buffalo,  Syracuse  or  Rochester.  The  utilization  of  Niagara 
power  alone  means  a  yearly  saving  of  at  least  2,500,000  tons  of  coal,  or  the 
conservation  of  $6,000,000  to  $7,000,000  of  fuel  annually.  The  development 
of  the  high  tension  alternating  current  system  has,  therefore,  not  only  been 
the  means  of  reducing  the  cost  of  distributing  electric  power  and  of  prevent- 
ing the  congestion  of  manufactories,  but  has  also  been  a  great  factor  in  con- 
serving our  natural  resources. 

Turn  now  to  the  apparatus  by  which  the  consumer  transforms  the  elec- 


274         IMPROVEMENTS    IN    ELECTRIC    LIGHTING    PROPERTIES 

tricity  delivered  to  him  into  light,  heat  and  power.  Here  again  scientific 
study  and  research  have  done  much  to  increase  the  efficiency  of  the  apparatus 
used.  The  reduced  price  of  electricity  by  itself,  therefore,  does  not  indicate 
the  total  saving  to  the  consumer.  We  have  to-day  arc  lamps  of  more  than 
100  per  cent  greater  efficiency  than  those  of  a  few  years  ago.  Incandescent 
lamps  in  the  early  days  consumed  six  watts  of  energy  per  candle  power.  This 
consumption  was  soon  reduced  to  three  watts  per  candle,  where  it  remained 
for  many  years  and  seemed  to  baffle  further  reduction,  but  after  years  of 
scientific  experimentation  this  has  been  reduced  to  one  and  one-half  watts 
per  candle,  and  to-day  we  have  the  Tungsten  lamp  which  consumes  only  one 
watt  per  candle,  and  a  still  further  improvement  is  promised  in  a  lamp  which 
is  to  consume  not  over  one-half  a  watt  per  candle. 

To-day  we  have  in  common  use  electric  heaters,  stoves,  irons  and  other 
special  heating  devices,  which  a  few  years  ago  were  commercially  impossible. 
The  general  adoption  of  these  household  conveniences  has  been  brought 
about,  not  altogether  by  the  reduction  in  the  cost  of  electricity  but  to  a  large 
extent  by  the  development  of  efficient  and  durable  heating  elements,  which, 
thanks  to  our  heating  engineers,  are  now  sold  at  reasonable  prices. 

Motors  for  transforming  electricity  into  mechanical  power  have  been 
perfected  and  their  efficiency  is  now  from  20  to  50  per  cent  better  than  in 
the  early  days,  and  they  are  so  designed  and  constructed  that  they  may  be 
applied  directly  to  the  machinery  which  they  are  to  drive,  thus  obviating  the 
expense  of  shafting,  pulleys  and  belting. 

While  all  of  the  matters  thus  far  discussed  relate  to  improvements 
which  have  taken  place  in  the  physical  apparatus  of  the  property,  we  must 
not  fail  to  give  due  credit  for  the  development  of  the  electric  lighting  indus- 
try, and  for  the  reduction  in  the  cost  of  light,  heat  and  power,  to  the  scien- 
tific management  of  electric  lighting  properties,  which  have  been  specialized 
to  a  remarkable  degree  and  carried  on  with  most  satisfactory  results  for 
many  years,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  term  "  efficiency  engineer  "  is  just 
becoming  known  to  the  public.  The  improvements  in  electric  lighting  prop- 
erties have  been  due  fully  as  much  to  the  trained  engineer  who  operates  the 
property  as  to  the  engineer  who  plans  it  or  who  designs  the  appartus  used 
in  it.  It  is  the  operating  engineer  who  in  many  cases  has  pointed  out  oppor- 
tunities for  betterments  and  has  suggested  to  the  designing  engineer  where 
economies  and  improvements  could  be  made  in  the  physical  apparatus.  It  is 
the  operating  engineer  who  by  careful  study  of  men,  machinery  and  methods 
has  brought  about  economies  in  the  production  of  electricity  which  have  re- 
sulted in  reduced  costs.  He  has  scoured  the  country  over  for  keen,  careful 
men  and  has  enrolled  upon  his  staff  the  pick  of  the  country.  He  has  in- 


WILLIAM  H.  BLOOD,  JK.,  >88  275 

structed  them  in  their  particular  duties  and  has  educated  them  so  that  they 
have  become  experts  in  their  lines.  He  has  selected  the  best  machinery  and 
apparatus  that  could  be  designed,  and  when  changes  in  the  art  have  dictated 
he  has  been  quick  to  reconstruct  his  plant  so  as  to  produce  maximum  results 
at  minimum  cost.  He  has  tested  and  continues  to  test  the  coal  which  he  uses 
to  make  sure  that  it  contains  the  number  of  heat  units  which  he  pays  for.  He 
weighs  every  pound  of  coal  which  is  put  under  the  boilers  and  he  watches 
like  a  cat  the  electric  meters  in  his  power  station,  in  order  that  he  may 
know  at  all  times  the  exact  output  of  the  station.  If  the  coal  consumption  is 
too  high,  he  investigates  and  determines  where  the  waste  occurs.  He  an- 
alyzes all  his  costs  and  compares  them  with  the  results  of  previous  years  and 
with  the  records  of  other  companies.  Through  a  study  of  his  costs,  he  is 
able  to  determine  a  system  of  rates  based  upon  costs  which  is  equitable  and 
non-discriminatory.  He  has,  in  establishing  these  rates,  automatically  im- 
proved his  load  factor,  or,  in  non-technical  language,  has  increased  the  aver- 
age use  of  his  plant  and  this  has  necessarily  brought  about  lower  unit  costs 
of  the  article  produced.  He  has  classified  his  costs  as  fixed  and  variable,  the 
fixed  including  interest,  taxes,  insurance,  depreciation  and  the  like,  the 
variable  including  fuel,  labor,  maintenance,  etc.,  and  by  this  means  has  been 
able  to  differentiate  his  customers,  basing  rates  not  only  on  the  actual 
amount  of  current  used  but  upon  the  cost  of  the  plant  which  is  to  be  re- 
served for  the  special  service.  By  the  use  of  proper  meters,  he  has  made 
it  possible  for  his  customer  to  buy  a  measured  service  and  so  get  away  from 
the  unjust  and  unscientific  flat  rate  system  of  charging. 

He  has  established  a  nomenclature  of  his  own,  and  methods  of  analysis 
peculiar  to  the  industry.  Whoever  heard  of  a  load  curve,  load  factor,  maxi- 
mum demand  or  diversity  factor  until  the  trained  engineer  showed  that,  in 
studying  the  costs  of  the  various  kinds  of  service  and  establishing  equitable 
rates,  these  were  necessary. 

The  operating  engineer  has  not  only  brought  about  a  great  reduction  in 
the  cost  of  electrical  energy  itself,  but  as  a  result  of  a  scientific  investigation 
of  the  customer's  needs  he  has  effected,  through  the  use  of  suitable  electrical 
apparatus,  what  is  in  reality  a  still  further  reduction  in  the  cost  of  light 
and  power  to  the  consumer. 

With  his  knowledge  of  the  underlying  principles  of  illumination  he 
has  been  able  to  advise  his  customers  as  to  the  best  arrangement  of  lights,  so 
that  besides  producing  artistic  and  pleasing  effects  he  lias  obtained  the  re- 
sults sought  at  minimum  cost. 

By  a  study  of  the  application  of  power  in  industrial  plants,  he  has  made 
further  reductions  in  the  cost  of  power  by  the  use  of  the  "direct  drive." 


276         IMPROVEMENTS    IN    ELECTRIC    LIGHTING    PEOPERTIES 

This  means  that  the  motors  which  transform  the  electrical  energy  into  me- 
chanical power  are  of  exactly  the  right  size  and  speed  and  are  connected 
directly  to  the  machine  which  requires  the  power,  thus  eliminating  all  belt 
and  other  transmission  losses. 

In  many  other  ways  he  has  applied  his  knowledge  of  scientific  principles 
to  the  direct  benefit  of  his  customers. 

The  wonderful  advance  which  has  taken  place  in  the  last  twenty  years 
in  the  electric  lighting  industry  has  been  due  to  the  combined  efforts  of  the 
operating  engineer  and  the  designing  engineer.  It  has  been  a  gradual  and  a 
steady  evolution  and  is  still  going  on.  The  industry  itself  has  not  reaped 
all  the  benefits,  for  while  the  returns  on  electric  light  investments  have  been 
sure  they  have  not  been  as  large  as  the  dividends  which  the  public  has  re- 
ceived in  the  reduced  cost  of  electric  light  and  power. 

Twenty  years  ago  electric  lights  were  high  priced  luxuries,  to-day  they 
are  inexpensive  necessities.  In  this  wonderful  transformation  Technology 
men  have  played  no  small  part.  The  success  of  many  electrical  undertak- 
ings may  be  credited  to  them,  for  they  have  entered  every  field  of  the  indus- 
try and  have  done  much  to  improve  the  efficiency  of  the  apparatus,  to 
broaden  the  use  of  electricity,  to  reduce  the  cost  of  production,  and  to  make 
what  were  formerly  hazardous  undertakings  safe  and  sure  investments. 


ADVENT  OF  ILLUMINATING  ENGINEERING. 

By  JOHN  S.  CODMAN,  '93, 

Consulting  Illuminating  Engineer  to  the  Holophaue  Company  and  the  National 
Electric  Lamp  Association. 

AT  the  beginning  of  this  century  illuminating  engineering,  practically 
speaking,  did  not  exist,  since  methods  of  obtaining  results  in  illumination 
were  almost  altogether  empirical,  and  the  question  of  control  of  light  was 
little  understood  and  pretty  generally  ignored.  As  a  result,  however,  of  the 
pioneer  work  of  a  few  technically  trained  men,  in  the  first  years  of  the 
century,  the  way  was  paved  for  the  establishment  of  the  science  of  illumina- 
tion and  the  practice  of  illuminating  engineering. 

On  January  10,  1906,  the  Illuminating  Engineering  Society  was  or- 
ganized in  New  York  City  and  from  that  date  the  progress  of  illuminating 
engineering  has  been  wonderfully  rapid.  This  society,  which  was  originally 
confined  to  New  York  and  started  with  a  membership  of  about  one  hundred, 
has  now  a  membership  of  fifteen  hundred  and  is  organized  into  four  sections 
in  New  York,  Boston,  Philadelphia  and  Chicago.  Among  its  members  may 
be  counted  architects,  oculists,  consulting  engineers,  fixture  dealers,  manu- 
facturers of  lighting  appliances  and  individuals  connected  with  the  gas  and 
electric  companies.  It  is  to-day  practically  the  only  society  in  which  the 
competing  gas  and  electric  interests  can  exchange  ideas  on  the  subject  of 
illumination  to  their  mutual  advantage. 

Following  the  organization  of  the  Illuminating  Engineering  Society 
there  appeared,  two  months  later,  in  March,  1906,  the  first  technical  maga- 
zine devoted  exclusively  to  illumination.  In  January,  1908,  appeared  the 
first  number  of  a  similar  magazine  in  England,  and  in  Feburary,  1909,  an 
illuminating  engineering  society  was  organized  in  London.  The  movement, 
therefore,  toward  establishing  the  science  of  illumination  on  a  practical  basis 
has  been  a  broad  one  and  it  is  a  matter  of  congratulation  to  the  engineers 
of  this  country  that  its  inception  was  in  the  United  States. 

At  the  beginning  of  this  movement,  methods  of  obtaining  results  in 
illumination  were  most  unscientific,  but  through  the  efforts  of  many  men, 
illuminating  engineering  is  now  being  placed  on  a  basis  almost  as  exact 

277 


278  ADVENT    OF    ILLUMINATING    ENGINEERING 

(except  on  the  aesthetic  side  in  which  exactness  is  neither  expected  nor 
desired)  as  are  other  branches  of  engineering.  Five  or  six  years  ago 
photometric  tests  of  light  sources  to  ascertain  the  amount  of  light  furnished 
and  the  manner  in  which  it  was  distributed,  were  not  often  made  and,  except 
in  a  few  cases,  were  of  interest  only  to  the  scientist.  At  the  present  time 
such  tests  of  their  product  are  considered  by  all  prominent  manufacturers 
of  lighting  appliances  as  essential  to  commercial  success  and,  in  conse- 
quence, the  results  of  such  tests,  in  the  form  usually  of  photometric  curves, 
are  readily  obtainable  and  from  this  and  from  much  other  data  now  within 
reach  of  the  engineer,  accurate  calculations  can  be -made  in  advance  as  in 
other  branches  of  engineering. 

To  a  considerable  extent,  a  new  terminology  has  been  evolved  and  tech- 
nical names  used  only  by  the  scientists  five  or  six  years  ago,  may  now  be 
seen  in  common  use  in  the  magazines  devoted  to  gas,  electricity  and  illumi- 
nation and  may  be  heard  in  the  mouths  of  commercial  men. 

The  term  "  foot-candle  "  for  the  unit  of  illumination  is  now  extensively 
used  in  commercial  language  and  the  term  "  lumen  "  for  the  unit  of  light 
flux  is  rapidly  coming  into  general  use  and,  in  all  probability,  will  eventually 
be  the  unit  in  which  all  sources  of  light  will  be  rated. 

At  the  present  time  illuminating  engineers  are  concerning  themselves 
more  and  more  with  the  artistic  and  physiological  sides  of  the  question.  The 
hygienic  aspects  of  illuminating  engineering  in  particular  are  at  the  present 
time  obtaining  steadily  increasing  attention,  and  the  work  along  these  lines 
in  regard  to  schoolhouses  and  industrial  plants  is  conspicuous.  Here  in 
Boston  the  school  house  commission  has  done  excellent  pioneer  work  toward 
supplying  proper  illumination  in  school  houses,  and  in  the  industrial  field  the 
interest  manifested  is  made  very  evident  by  the  rapidly  increasing  frequency 
with  which  papers  on  subjects  of  illumination  are  being  given  before  the  in- 
dustrial associations,  and  by  the  fact  that  the  National  Manufacturers  Asso- 
ciation has  recently  appointed  a  committee  on  heating,  lighting  and  ven- 
tilation. 

An  Association  for  the  Conservation  of  Vision,  which  will  enlist  among 
its  members,  not  only  the  physicians  and  oculists,  but  also  the  engineers  and 
physicists,  has  just  been  formed  and  its  organization  is  still  another  notable 
step  in  the  progress  of  the  movement. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  GASOLINE  ENGINES. 

By  JOSEPH  C.  RILEY,  '98, 

Assistant  Professor  of  Mechanical  Engineering,  at  the  Massachusetts  Institute 

of  Technology. 

THE  development  of  the  gasoline  engine  has  been  more  rapid  than  that 
of  any  other  form  of  motor,  not  even  excepting  the  steam  turbine.  We  all 
recollect,  not  many  years  ago,  with  what  curiosity  we  regarded  the  new 
horseless  carriages  upon  our  streets,  and  how  we  wondered  whether  the  noisy 
little  engines  which  left  a  smell  of  half -burned  gasoline  behind  them,  would 
ever  become  really  desirable  motors.  As  late  as  1896,  a  prominent  engineer 
wrote,  in  his  work  on  the  gas  engine,  that  he  had  recently  examined  one  of 
the  strangely  designed  vehicles  then  attracting  attention  in  France,  and  that 
in  his  opinion,  ingenious  as  the  carriage  was,  it  would  not  come  into  general 
use  unless  the  gasoline  engine  with  which  it  was  equipped  were  replaced  by 
a  heavy-oil  engine.  That  was  only  fifteen  years  ago. 

The  first  part  of  this  period  of  development  saw  radical  changes  in 
the  design  of  these  motors,  but  the  use  of  light-oil  had  come  to  stay.  Al- 
though dangerously  inflammable  and  five  times  as  dear  as  the  heavier  grades 
of  petroleum  burned  in  larger  oil  engines,  the  cleanliness  of  gasoline  and 
the  ease  with  which  it  can  be  prepared  for  combustion,  are  alone  sufficient  to 
dictate  its  use.  The  original  methods  of  mixing,  introducing  and  firing  the 
explosive  charge  were  soon  changed  in  order  to  secure  more  reliable  opera- 
tion throughout  a  greater  range  in  speed  and  load.  Cylinders  and  valves 
were  designed  to  give  more  power.  Ball-bearings  and  gears  of  a  degree  of 
perfection  previously  unknown  were  introduced,  to  minimize  friction.  But 
the  most  noticeable  changes  in  the  last  few  years  have  been  largely  in  the 
nature  of  improvements  in  material  and  processes  of  manufacture,  tending 
toward  a  general  improvement  of  the  engine  as  a  machine  and  a  simplifica- 
tion of  its  construction.  New  alloys  of  aluminum  and  methods  of  cooling 
them  locally  in  the  mould  have  brought  about  light,  yet  rigid  and  durable 
castings  for  frames.  New  steels  have  provided  stronger  shafts  and  connect- 
ing rods.  Machine  moulding  from  wax  or  metal  patterns  has  produced  bet- 

279 


280  DEVELOPMENT    OF    GASOLINE    ENGINES 

ter  castings  of  more  uniform  thickness  and  yet  at  lower  cost  than  could 
have  been  produced  by  hand.  The  art  of  moulding  the  thin  walls  and  coring 
the  irregular  jackets  of  cylinders,,  and  then  casting  them  in  iron,  has  indeed 
been  revolutionized.  -Castings  which  a  few  years  ago  would  have  attracted 
general  attention  as  remarkable  specimens  of  good  workmanship  are  now  so 
common  that  we  pass  them  by  without  notice.  The  use  of  special  jigs  for 
holding  work  during  cutting  operations  and  the  application  of  semi-auto- 
matic tools  for  machining  or  grinding  to  precise  dimensions  have  not  only 
produced  better  fitted  surfaces  and  fully  interchangeable  parts,  but  have  also 
reduced  the  time  and  cost  of  production. 

The  gasoline  engine  has  profited  by  the  general  rapid  advance  in  all 
branches  of  mechanical  work.  Its  own  special  improvements  have  been,  for 
the  most  part,  such  as  would  naturally  come  from  the  thousands  of  ingenious 
designers,  skilful  mechanics  and  experienced  drivers,  who  have  tested  and 
tried  it  under  all  possible  conditions  of  service,  on  the  road,  on  the  water, 
and  in  the  air.  As  a  result,  advancing  by  process  of  trial  and  error,  the 
engine  has  reached  a  fair  degree  of  perfection  in  two  points  at  least.  It  has 
been  made  to  develop  greater  power  per  unit  weight  than  any  other  form  of 
prime  mover;  and  in  reliability  it  has  been  advanced  to  the  stage  which 
warrants  its  use  even  for  such  exacting  service  as  propelling  a  life-boat  or 
driving  a  fire-engine. 

Aside  from  differences  in  general  excellence  of  mechanical  construction 
caused  by  variation  in  design,  unquestionably  there  are  inherent  differ- 
ences in  the  power  developed  and  in  the  economy  of  fuel  consumption.  A 
study  of  the  results  of  test  of  automobile  engines  shows  a  wide  variation  in 
power  of  motors  having  similar  dimensions  and  running  at  the  same  piston 
speed.  When  operated  at  the  piston  speed  corresponding  to  maximum 
power  (a  speed  usually  between  1100  and  1500  feet  per  minute)  the  best 
engines  give  results  nearly  50  per  cent  better  than  the  poor  ones.  Knowing 
that  the  engines  referred  to  are  developing  all  that  can  be  got  out  of  them, 
we  may  well  inquire  the  cause  of  this  difference  in  output.  But  little  of  it 
can  be  charged  to  imperfection  of  the  mechanism  causing  surface  friction, 
for  even  the  cheaper  motors  are  well  built  in  this  respect.  It  is  influenced 
by  the  quality  and  quantity  of  explosive  mixture,  the  amount  of  compression, 
the  time  and  rapidity  of  ignition  and  the  timing  and  size  of  the  valves. 

In  the  early  days  of  steam  engineering,  information  of  the  rate  of  pres- 
sure change  in  the  cylinder  was  considered  so  necessary  that  Watt  invented 
an  instrument  for  recording  it.  A  modified  form  of  this  steam  engine  in- 
dicator has  played  an  important  part  in  the  study  and  improvement  of  steam 
engines  ever  since.  With  it,  the  cause  of  deficient  power  may  readily  be 


JOSEPH    C.    RILEY,   '98  281 

traced  to  its  origin  in  faulty  steam  distribution,  in  wire  drawing  through  too 
small  a  port,  or  in  condensation ;  without  it  the  very  fact  that  the  power  is 
deficient  may  remain  unsuspected.  Any  attempt  to  secure  the  last  refine- 
ment in  steam  engine  performance  without  using  the  indicator  would  be  like 
deliberately  working  in  the  dark.  For  internal  combustion  engines  of  mod- 
erate speed  the  indicator  has  been  of  service,  though  it  was  not  needed  as 
much  as  for  steam  engines.  But  the  full  speed  of  gasoline  engines  of  the 
classes  here  considered,  namely,  the  lightweight  motors  adapted  to  auto- 
mobiles, aeroplanes  and  small  boats,  is  much  too  high  for  any  of  the 
ordinary  commercial  forms  of  indicators.  In  Germany  and  England,  half- 
size  indicators  of  the  standard  patterns  are  manufactured  and  sold  for  this 
work.  It  is  said  that  they  can^be  used  up  to  1500  and  2000  revolutions  per 
minute, — which  should  be  understood  to  mean  little  more  than  that  they 
can  be  operated  at  such  speeds  without  actually  breaking.  The  natural 
cadence  of  vibration  of  their  springs  and  moving  parts  is  altogether  too  slow 
for  anything  like  such  high  speeds  ;  the  waves  introduced  into  the  dia- 
gram by  violent  explosions  would  be  too  long  and  might  be  misleading. 
However,  at  speeds  from  400  to  perhaps  800  R.P.M  they,  are  very  useful. 
What  is  needed  is  a  recording  mechanism  with  a  period  of  vibration  of  high 
frequency,  more  like  that  of  the  electrical  oscillograph,  say  between  500  and 
1000  per  second  ;  and  if  incorrect  deductions  are  to  be  avoided,  great  care 
should  be  taken  to  insure  that  the  indicator  diagram  starts  from  its  dead 
points  exactly  in  phase  with  the  engine  piston. 

Within  the  past  three  or  four  years  special  indicators  capable  of  produc- 
ing satisfactory  results  at  1000  revolutions  per  minute  and  upwards  have 
been  used  in  research  work  in  a  few  technical  schools  and  private  testing 
laboratories.  The  instruments  of  Nagel,  Watson,  and  Clerk  and  the 
Hopkinson  indicator,  are  all  of  the  optical  type.  They  cannot  be  handled 
successfully  except  by  skilled  observers  ;  in  general  they  could  not  be 
used  at  all  with  the  engine  in  actual  service.  The  cylinder  must  be 
mounted  on  a  rigid  testing  block  and  studied  under  artificial,  ideal  condi- 
tions. The  data  thus  far  available  from  such  tests  are  merely  fragmentary, 
but  they  are  promising,  and  in  time  will  surely  be  valuable.  Conclusions 
drawn  from  a  few  isolated  tests  are  not  of  much  assistance.  A  series  of 
tests  is  required,  systematically  conducted,  with  gradual  changes  in  the 
one  condition  whose  effect  is  to  be  studied  and  practical  constancy  of  all 
other  conditions  affecting  the  result.  Such  investigations  require  a  labora- 
tory equipped  with  a  good  dynamometer  and  the  best  apparatus  that  can 
be  devised  for  indicating  and  controlling  the  operation  of  the  motor. 
Satisfactory  dynamometers  of  the  electric  cradle  type  and  also  the  hydraulic 


282  DEVELOPMENT    OF    GASOLINE    ENGINES 

type  are  used  by  many  engine  builders  as  well  as  by  the  technical  schools 
and  automobile  club  laboratories,  and  much  has  been  learned  about  the 
brake  output  of  engines  throughout  the  entire  range  of  speed.  What 
happens  inside  the  engine  cylinders,  however,  is  not  so  well  known. 

Between  the  better  and  the  poorer  designs  of  gasoline  engines  there  are 
wide  margins  in  power,  to  say  nothing  of  fuel  economy.  The  dynamometer 
tells  us  that  they  exist  and  that  the  better  results  are  well  worth  striving 
for,  but  it  does  not  show  whether  deficiency  in  power  is  due  to  constricted 
passages,  defective  ingition  and  combustion,  or  any  other  definite  fault. 
Now,  the  scientific  way  to  remedy  a  defect  of  any  kind  is  to  begin  by  in- 
vestigating first  its  magnitude  and  then  its  cause  ;  and  the  instrument 
adapted  to  such  a  study  in  the  case  of  the  gasoline  engine  is  the  indicator, 
—  in  the  half-size  pattern,  within  limits,  and  then  in  the  optical  type. 

With  all  fast  running  reciprocating  engines  the  necessity  for  arrang- 
ing the  cylinders  to  secure  regularity  of  driving  effort  and  for  balancing 
the  moving  parts  to  prevent  excessive  vibration  is  apparent.  Good  me- 
chanical balance  is  particularly  desirable  for  the  class  of  engines  discussed  in 
this  paper,  because  the  total  masses  corresponding  to  a  foundation  are 
very  light,  and  the  services  in  which  the  motors  are  employed  are  such 
that  vibration  cannot  be  tolerated.  The  best  engines  for  automobiles, 
boats  and  aeroplanes  give  evidence  of  having  been  planned  by  men  trained 
in  the  principles  of  dynamics,  as  well  as  in  all  other  elements  of  mechani- 
cal design.  Some  builders,  however,  have  but  hazy  notions  on  methods 
of  balancing.  In  fact,  they  seem  to  associate  vibration  with  the  sudden 
rise  in  pressure  due  to  explosion  within  the  cylinder,  as  if  the  shaking  of 
the  frame  were  due  to  the  shock  of  explosion.  That  vibration  results  from 
motion  of  the  masses,  and  that  it  would  be  practically  the  same  even  if  the 
cylinder  heads  were  removed  and  the  engine  were  motored  around  by 
power  supplied  at  its  shaft  is  a  new  idea  to  them.  Examples  are  common 
of  this  lack  of  appreciation  of  physical  principles  among  men  whose  knowl- 
edge and  experience  in  all  other  branches  of  design  and  operation  of  small 
engines  is  very  broad. 

There  are  many  problems  which  arise  in  the  design  of  machinery 
which  cannot  be  solved  even  approximately  until  after  the  machine  is 
built  and  tested.  The  experience  gained  by  operation  of  the  first  few  im- 
perfect machines  then  furnishes  the  information  required  for  modifying 
and  improving  existing  forms,  in  varying  sizes  and  powers,  and  thus  the 
machine  is  gradually  perfected  without  the  application  of  purely  theoreti- 
cal reasoning.  This  was  the  case  with  the  steam  engine.  Nearly  all  the 


JOSEPH    C.    KILEY,    '98  283 

radical  improvements  were  invented  and  used  long  before  they  were  sys- 
tematically tested  to  find  out  just  how  efficient  they  were  or  how  they  could 
be  made  to  give  better  results.  This  history  is  being  repeated  in  the  de- 
velopment of  gasoline  engines.  The  application  of  scientific  methods  of 
investigating  them  is  only  just  beginning. 


THE  PROGRESS  OP  ELECTRIC  PROPULSION  IN 
GREAT  BRITAIN 

By  HENRY  M.  HOBART,  '89, 
Consulting  Engineer,  London,  England. 

I  CAN"  best  deal  with  my  subject  by  treating  consecutively  of  the 
chief  departments  of  electric  propulsion.  These  may  be  broadly  designated 
as: — 

I.  Electric  Propulsion  on  Land. 
II.  Electric  Propulsion  at  Sea. 

I.  Electric  Propulsion  on  Land. — Fifteen  years  ago  but  very  few  elec- 
tric street  railways  were  in  operation  in  Great  Britain.  The  electric  street 
railway  business  was,  however,  rapidly  gathering  impetus  and  it  is  now 
several  years  since  the  practical  exhaustion  of  the  field  so  far  as  relates  to 
new  undertakings.  But  little  now  remains  to  be  done  in  this  direction 
beyond  routine  extension  work,  and  such  work  is  altogether  insufficient  to 
be  much  of  a  consideration  to  electrical  manufacturers.  The  electrical  equip- 
ments employed  for  British  street  railways  have,  to  a  preponderating  extent, 
been  supplied  by  companies  closely  affiliated  with  American  manufacturers 
and  the  apparatus  is  almost  exclusively  of  American  design.  This  has 
been  a  consequence  of  the  circumstance  that  the  work  of  electrifying  street 
railways  was  only  taken  up  extensively  in  England  several  years  later  than 
was  the  case  in  America.  At  that  time  (fifteen  years  ago),  the  German  elec- 
trical industry,  which  has  more  recently  had  a  large  share  of  electrical  work 
in  England,  had  not  arrived  at  a  stage  of  development  such  that  it  could 
participate  in  this  tramway  business  to  any  appreciable  extent.  At  no 
time  have  any  of  the  strictly  British  manufacturers  of  electrical  machinery 
(with  a  single  notable  exception),  ever  done  any  large  amount  of  work 
in  the  manufacture  of  electrical  equipments  for  surface  street  railways. 

As  regards  underground  electric  railways,  however,  England  has  done 
valuable  pioneer  work.  The  City  and  South  London  Railway  (installed  some 
twenty-one  years  ago),  was  the  earliest  of  London's  deep-level  railways,  and 
it  constituted  the  first  link  in  what  has  now  become  a  vast  system  for  the 
underground  transportation  of  passengers  by  electrically  propelled  trains. 

284 


HENRY    M.    HOBART,    '89  285 

The  s}rstem  has  gradually  been  extended,  during  the  last  twelve  years,  until 
now  the  various  underground  electric  railways  in  London  constitute  an 
eminently  useful  and  inter-connected  network  reaching  out  to  many  of  the 
remotest  sections  of  London.  Unfortunately  the  enormous  capital  cost 
together  with  the  low  fares  necessitated  by  the  competition  of  the  tram- 
cars  and  motor  'buses  on  the  surface  and  the  still  discouragingly  slow 
growth  of  the  traveling  habit,  are  rendering  it  very  difficult  to  so  operate 
the  tube  railways  as  to  yield  any  approach  to  an  attractive  return  on  the 
investment.  Consequently  all  further  developments  of  any  importance 
on  these  lines  are  at  present  at  a  standstill  as  there  is  no  sufficient  incen- 
tive for  embarking  further  capital  in  such  undertakings. 

At  first  sight  it  would  appear  that  so  thickly  settled  a  country  as  Eng- 
land, with  many  large  cities  situated  close  to  one  another,  should  afford  an 
excellent  field  for  inter-urban  electric  railways  such  as  have  been  so  ex- 
tensively built  in  America.  The  obstacles,  however,  relate  largely  to  the 
excellent  facilities  already  provided  by  the  numerous  steam-railways  and 
the  great  difficulties,  delays  and  expenses  involved  in  dealing  with  the  many 
long-established  authorities,  not  only  in  obtaining  the  rights  in  the  first 
instance  but  also  afterwards  in  conforming  to  the  many  vexatious  (and 
wanton)  restrictions  almost  invariably  imposed  in  England  upon  am- 
bitious innovations. 

The  great  railways  of  England  are  now  keenly  alive  to  the  necessity 
of  considering  the  electrification  of  their  suburban  lines  and  I  have  little 
doubt  but  that  there  will  soon  be  important  developments  in  this  direction. 
Up  to  very  recently  the  railways  have  been  going  through  a  discouraging 
period,  but  owing,  amongst  other  reasons,  to  the  beneficial  effects  of 
working  agreements  with  one  another,  and  the  consequent  elimination  of 
a  considerable  amount  of  wasteful  competition,  the  steam  railways  are,  in 
general,  now  in  a  much  more  promising  condition.  Their  suburban  busi- 
ness has  suffered  badly  from  the  competition  of  the  'buses  and  the  mu- 
nicipally operated  tramways  and  they  have  the  choice  either  of  electrifying 
their  terminii  or  of  practically  abandoning  their  suburban  traffic 
and  bending  their  energies  to  the  development  of  the  longer 
distance  traffic.  Those  railways  which  elect  to  follow  the  latter 
plan  are  ill-advised,  pending  further  progress  in  electrical  engineer- 
ing, to  take  electrification  into  account,  for  the  steam  locomo- 
tive is,  at  present,  much  the  more  appropriate  agent.  But  in  the 
case  of  railways  which  determine  to  strive  to  retain  and  extend  their  sub- 
urban traffic,  the  only  means  by  which  they  can  make  it  sufficiently  attrac- 
tive is  to  adopt  electric  working  of  their  trains.  This  view  is  coming  to  be 


286     PROGRESS   OF    ELECTRIC    PROPULSION   IN   GREAT    BRITAIN 

widely  accepted.  But  steam-railway  engineers  and  officials  are  naturally 
very  much  perplexed  when  it  comes  to  determining  upon  the  most  appro- 
priate amongst  the  two  leading  systems  of  railway  electrification.  While, 
on  the  one  hand,  they  see  the  single-phase  system  widely  employed  in 
Germany,  on  the  other  hand  they  learn  that  it  has  not,  in  America,  proved 
by  any  means  an  unqualified  success,  and  that  the  continuous  electricity 
system  is  now  the  more  generally  approved  by  the  best  informed  Ameri- 
can engineers  whenever  it  is  a  question  of  electrifying  the  suburban  sec- 
tions of  main-line  railways.  The  present  policy  of  the  German  financiers 
interested  in  electrical  manufacturing,  is  to  take  advantage  of  any  entering 
wedge  offered  them  in  the  British  railway  situation  and  they  are  disposed 
to  mitigate  in  all  practical  ways  the  heavy  capital  burden  inevitably  asso- 
ciated with  railway  electrification  undertakings,  and  this  circumstance 
weighs  very  appreciably  in  favor  of  the  use  of  the  single-phase  system.  But  a 
dispassionate  comparison  shows  that  the  single-phase  system  is,  for  a  dense 
and  severe  suburban  service,  by  no  means  so  economical  as  the  continuous 
electricity  system,  either  as  regards  capital  or  working  costs. 

For  long-distance  runs  with  trains  operated  at  rare  intervals  and  with 
infrequent  stops,  as  also  for  freight  service,  the  single-phase  system  would 
be  at  least  as  economical  in  most  instances  as  the  system  employing  con- 
tinuous electricity  train  equipments,  but  at  the  present  stage  of  progress  in 
the  development  of  electrical  methods,  no  system  of  electric  propulsion 
can  compete  with  steam-locomotive  methods  for  services  of  such  a  char- 
acter. Electrification  is  exceedingly  appropriate  for  suburban  sections 
where,  notwithstanding  frequent  stops,  the  trains  must  maintain  a  high 
schedule  speed,  and  where  the  interval  between  the  passage  of  successive 
trains  is  only  a  few  minutes.  For  such  conditions,  steam-locomotive  opera- 
tion is  inherently  very  much  inferior.  But  for  long-distance  runs  with 
trains  passing  at  rare  intervals,  steam-locomotive  operation  is,  except  in 
special  cases,  such  as  for  lines  having  tunnels  or  heavy  grades,  just  as  un- 
questionably superior. 

Two  main-line  railways,  the  North-Eastern  Railway  and  the  Lanca- 
shire and  Yorkshire  Eailway,  already  have  extensive  sections  of  electrified 
suburban  lines.  For  these  roads  the  continuous  electricit^y  system  has  been 
adopted.  On  the  other  hand  the  London,  Brighton  and  South  Coast  Rail- 
way is  electrifying  its  suburban  lines  on  the  single-phase  system  and  appears 
to  have  in  view  the  complete  electrification  of  its  entire  system.  As  there 
are  no  long  runs  on  this  system  and  as  it  has  a  very  dense  service  of  passen- 
ger trains  and  covers  a  fairly  compact  area,  the  project  of  complete  electri- 
fication is  eminently  sound,  but  it  would  appear  that  the  continuous 


HENRY    M.    HOBART,   *89  287 

electricity  system  would  have  been  more  appropriate,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
North-Eastern  Eailway  and  the  Lancashire  and  Yorkshire  Railway. 

The  subject  of  the  electrification  of  British  main-line  railways  has  re- 
cently been  very  thoroughly  discussed  at  various  meetings  of  British  en- 
gineering socities. 

II.  Electric  Propulsion  at  Sea. — Naval  architects  and  marine  en- 
gineers in  Great  Britain  are  quietly  giving  a  large  amount  of  attention  to 
the  proposition  of  embodying  electrical  apparatus  in  the  propulsive  machin- 
ery of  ships.  In  view  of  the  leading  position  of  Great  Britain  as  regards 
ship-building,  the  importance  of  this  subject  can,  as  regards  its  potential 
influence  upon  the  progress  of  electrical  engineering  developments  in  Great 
Britain,  scarcely  be  over-estimated. 

When  the  steam  turbine  first  came  to  be  widely  applied  for  ship  pro- 
pulsion, it  was  recognized  that  it  would  be  impossible  to  reconcile  the  high 
speed  of  revolution  essential  to  obtaining  good  efficiency  in  the  steam  tur- 
bine and  driving  a  low  speed  (and  consequently  efficient)  propeller  from 
tial  to  obtaining  good  efficiency  in  the  screw  propeller.  In  turbine-driven 
ships,  undesirably  low  speed  steam  turbines  drive  undesirably  high  speed 
propellers.  It  has  been  claimed  that  by  interposing  electric  transmission, 
i.e.,  by  driving  an  electric  generator  from  an  economically  high  speed  tur- 
bine and  driving  a  low  speed  (and  consequently  efficient)  propeller  from 
an  electric  motor,  supplied  by  the  generator,  better  economy  would  be  ob- 
tained than  by  the  direct  drive.  Under  certain  circumstances,  this  might 
prove  to  be  the  case,  but  usually  the  losses  in  the  electrical  apparatus  would 
be  so  great  as  to  offset  the  improved  economy  in  the  turbine  (due  to  its 
higher  speed)  and  in  the  screw  propeller  (due  to  its  lower  speed). 
Moreover,  the  electrical  apparatus  represents  a  heavy  initial  outlay.  Thus 
although  there  is  the  additional  advantage  of  dispensing  with  astern 
turbines,  this  first  electrical  proposition  has  naturally  been  the  subject  of 
vigorous  adverse  criticism. 

But  the  matter  has  now  assumed  a  phase  where  the  advantages  of  the 
electrical  method  are  much  more  obvious.  If  each  of  the  screw  propellers 
is  driven  direct  from  an  engine  or  turbine,  then  it  is  impracticable,  at 
low  speed  of  the  ship  (when  the  power  required  is  very  small  as  compared 
with  the  power  required  at  full  speed),  to  shut  down  any  of  the  engines 
with  a  view  to  operating  the  running  plant  at  high  load  and  consequently 
at  good  economy.  At  cruising  speed  a  warship  only  requires  a  very  small 
part  of  the  power  necessary  at  its  highest  speed,  and  its  propulsive  machin- 
ery is  operating  under  conditions  which  electrical  engineers  describe  as  a 
low  load-factor,  and  hence  at  poor  economy.  The  interposition  of  electric 


288     PROGRESS   OF   ELECTRIC   PROPULSION   IN   GREAT   BRITAIN 

transmission  machinery  permits  of  having  a  number  of  independent  gen- 
erating sets  in  the  engine  room  and  of  driving  just  so  many  of  them  as  shall 
correspond  to  a  high  load-factor  and  consequently  good  economy.  Also 
at  the  propellers  the  load  factor  principle  is  applied.  Thus  each  propeller 
shaft  may  be  coupled  to  more  than  one  motor  and  the  number  of  motors  in 
circuit  may  always  correspond  to  practically  the  most  efficient  load. 

The  more  closely  the  proposal  of  employing  electrical  machinery 
for  ship  propulsion  is  investigated,  the  more  apparent  become  the  prin- 
cipal and  the  incidental  advantages  attained  by  the  electric  drive.  Thus 
without  the  intermediation  of  the  electric  drive,  it  is  not  apparent  that 
Diesel  engines  or  any  other  internal-combustion  engine  would  be  sufficiently 
reliable  for  propelling  large  ships.  But  if  a  ship's  engine-room  contains  a 
reasonable  number  of  generating  sets,  each  driven  by  an  internal-combustion 
engine,  the  proposition  becomes  eminently  conservative.  Furthermore  it 
admittedly  permits  of  an  economy  of  fuel  far  exceeding  that  attainable  with 
steam  prime-movers.  The  difficulty  of  astern-running,  which  is  no  less 
present  with  the  internal-combustion  engine  than  with  the  steam-turbine, 
is  completely  overcome  by  the  use  of  electric  motors.  In  the  case  of  the 
steam  turbine  the  increased  speed  of  revolution  and  the  consequently 
decreased  diameter  enable  superheated  steam  to  be  employed,  and  a  very 
considerable  further  improvement  in  economy  is  thereby  secured. 


MECHANICAL  HANDLING  OF  MATERIALS 

By  RICHARD  DEVENS,  '88, 
Manager  Eastern  Office,  The  Brown  Hoisting  Machinery  Co.,  New  York  City. 

WITHIN"  the  last  few  years,  some  of  our  railroad,  industrial  and  steam- 
ship companies  have  begun  to  realize  the  important  part  mechanical  trans- 
ference plays  in  the  quick  and  economical  handling  of  material. 

The  most  efficient  advances  have  been  made  in  the  handling  of  bulk  ma- 
terial, such  as  ore,  coal  and  grain,  while  package  freight,  comprising  boxes, 
barrels,  bags  and  other  packages,  which  make  up  the  load  of  a  freight  car, 
or  the  cargo  of  a  steamship,  has  just  begun  to  receive  serious  consideration. 

It  is  no  doubt  a  fact  that  the  proficiency  in  handling  bulk  material 
was  due  to  the  difficulties  to  be  overcome  in  the  transportation  and  hand- 
ling of  Lake  Superior  iron  ore  to  the  center  of  the  iron  industry. 

The  first  vessels  to  carry  iron  ore  were  not  constructed  for  the  purpose, 
and  while  they  carried  some  ore  in  the  hold,  most  of  it  was  carried  on  deck. 
When  it  was  carried  in  the  hold,  it  was  hoisted  to  the  deck  by  horse-power, 
and  dumped  into  barrows;  and  then,  like  the  deck  cargo,  wheeled  ashore. 

The  next  step  was  the  substitution  of  a  small  hoisting  engine  for  the 
horse-power.  This  early  method  was  in  operation  many  years,  and  it  was 
not  until  the  dock  managers  were  forced  into  it,  by  the  great  expense  in 
carrying  large  storage  on  the  dock,  that  any  mechanical  devices  were 
attempted. 

A  cableway  machine,  built  and  erected  at  Cleveland,  Ohio,  in  1880, 
under  Mr.  Alex.  E.  Brown's  design  and  supervision,  was  the  first  me- 
chanical plant.  The  next  machines  were  of  the  bridge  type!  The  method 
of  handling  the  iron  ore,  over  either  the  cableway  or  bridge,  was  to  fill  iron 
buckets  by  hand  in  the  hold  of  the  vessel  and  then  hoist  them  by  the  ma- 
chine and  dump  them  automatically  into  railway  cars  or  storage.  In 
the  hold  there  were  from  twelve  to  fifteen  shovellers  to  each  machine,  and 
there  were  two  men  on  the  machine,  one  an  operator  and  the  other  a 
fireman.  Both  of  the  above  equipments  were  a  great  improvement  over  the 
early  methods,  and  handled  the  iron  ore  in  a  satisfactory  manner ;  yet  they 

289 


290  MECHANICAL    HANDLING    OF    MATEEIALS 

did  not  cut  down  the  cost  of  the  hand  labor  in  filling  the  buckets  in  the 
hold.  This  was  a  very  large  part  of  the  cost  of  unloading. 

An  automatic  filling  bucket  had  been  worked  successfully  for  a  num- 
ber of  years  in  coal  and  similiar  soft  material,  but  on  account  of  the  hard 
and  lumpy  nature  of  the  early  iron-ores,  it  could  not  be  operated  in  them. 

With  the  use  of  the  soft  Messaba  ores,  interest  in  the  automatic  filling 
or  grab  bucket  was  renewed,  and  about  ten  years  ago  the  first  successful 
grab  bucket  machines  were  erected  and  operated  at  the  Illinois  Steel 
Company's  plant  at  Chicago  by  the  Hoover  &  Mason  Company.  This 
plant  was  designed  to  unload  from  the  vessel  direct  into  railway  cars. 
The  success  of  this  plant  was  the  beginning  of  the  present  methods  of  un- 
loading iron  ore. 

There  have  developed  two  types  of  grab  bucket  machines;  one  with 
the  grab  bucket  suspended  from  wire  ropes  and  the  other  with  the  grab 
bucket  carried  on  a  rigid  arm.  The  cost  of  filling  the  buckets  by  hand  was 
about  13  to  15  cents  per  gross  ton,  and  the  cost  of  hoisting  and  dumping 
into  railway  cars  or  storage  from  1%  to  2  cents  per  gross  ton,  making  the 
total  cost  of  unloading  from  14%  to  17  cents.  With  the  grab  bucket  ma- 
chines, this  total  cost  has  been  reduced  to  from  1  to  2  cents  per  gross  ton,  de- 
pending on  the  distance  the  ore  is  carried  from  the  vessel. 

The  hand  filled  buckets  were  of  about  1  ton  capacity,  as  this  size  had 
been  found  to  be  the  most  practical  for  filling  and  handling  in  the  hold. 
With  the  grab  bucket  the  size  is  only  limited  by  the  dimensions  of  the  hatch 
and  the  shape  of  the  vessel.  The  first  grab  buckets  for  iron  ore  were  of  5- 
tons  capacity,  but  since  then  machines  have  been  built  to  handle  7%,  10 
and  15  tons.  Besides  reducing  the  cost  of  unloading,  the  ability  to  handle 
in  larger  units  has  reduced  the  time ;  whereas  with  the  hand  filled  buckets, 
to  unload  a  6,000-ton  vessel  was  a  question  of  days,  it  is  now  only  a  ques- 
tion of  hours.  The  steamer  "  Morgan  ",  of  the  Pittsburg  Steamship  Com- 
pany, with  a  cargo  of  11,319  tons  of  ore,  was  recently  unloaded  at  Fairport 
in  five  hours  and  fifty-eight  minutes.  The  work  was  done  with  six  Brown 
Electric  Unloaders. 

These  improvements  have  also  increased  the  earning  capacity  of  the 
vessel  by  making  possible  a  greater  number  of  trips  during  the  season. 
This  is  shown  by  the  following  comparative  statement  for  the  years  1906 
and  1910  showing  the  average  stay  at  upper  and  lower  ports  of  the  vessels 
of  the  Pittsburg  Steamship  Company: 


EICHAED    DEVENS,    '88  291 

Year  1906  Year  1910 

hr.  min.  hr.  min. 

Average  stay  in  lower  lake  ports 36     15  22     22 

Average  stay  in  tipper  lake  ports 22     25  12     22 

Average  time  spent  in  port  receiving  and  dis- 
charging  cargoes 58     38  34     44 

Gross  Tons  Gross  Tons. 

Average  cargo  carried 5,954  6,634 

Largest   cargo   carried 13,333  13,296 

In  70  min.  In  45  min. 

Fastest   loading   record 9,277  9,788 

Tons  Tons 

per  hour  per  hour 

Eate  of  fastest  loading  record 7,288  13,051 

In  the  foregoing  I  have  outlined  the  development  of  handling  bulk 
material,  using  iron  ore  as  an  example.  The  handling  of  package  freight 
has  not  been  brought  to  the  same  degree  of  perfection. 

Perhaps  the  most  complex  movements  in  the  handling  of  package 
freight  are  at  the  large  steamship  piers,  due  to  the  great  carrying  capacity 
of  the  large  vessels,  the  many  consignees,  each  having  his  allotted  space,  and 
the  limited  floor  area  that  has  to  be  cleared  quickly  to  make  room  for  the 
next  vessel.  The  larger  railroad  terminals  also  have  their  many  consignees, 
but  the  floor  area  is  not  so  restricted.  The  placing  of  the  packages  in  the 
proper  space  is  done  by  the  hand-truck.  A  sling  load  from  the  vessel,  or 
a  railway  car  may  contain  packages  for  several  consignees.  The  truck  man 
cannot  wait  to  sort  as  he  receives  them,  so  must  load  his  truck  with  them 
as  they  come.  This  means  a  long  travel  to  get  the  packages  to  their  allotted 
space.  In  order  to  tier  them,  several  more  handlings  are  necessary.  All 
this  leads  to  congestion  and  increasing  cost  per  ton.  This  is  further  affected 
by  the  rise  in  the  cost  of  labor,  materials,  rent  and  larger  terminals. 

At  a  terminal  there  are  two  kinds  of  freight, — outbound  and  inbound. 
The  outbound  is  transferred  from  wagons  into  the  outbound  freight  house 
and  thence  to  the  railway  cars  or  directly  from  the  wagons  to  the  cars.  The 
inbound  is  vice  versa.  All  the  above  movements,  except  between  wagons  and 
cars,  involve  the  sorting  and  distributing  of  each  package  to  its  designated 
space.  It  is  also  necessary  to  transfer  cars  from  one  freight  house  to  the 
other,  as  the  use  of  the  hand  truck  necessitates  bringing  the  cars  to  the 
freight. 

A  mechanical  equipment  to  be  satisfactory  must  be  able  to  distribute 
the  outbound  and  inbound  freight  simultaneously;  there  should  be  no  re- 
handling,  and  every  square  foot  of  floor  space  should  be  served  with  a  single 


292  MECHANICAL    HANDLING    OF    MATERIALS 

handling.  All  motions  of  lifting  and  conveying  should  be  done  by  power. 
The  machinery  should  be  designed  to  give  the  greatest  lift  required  and  to 
transfer  to  any  reasonable  distance,  and  then  tier  or  lower  into  cars.  Con- 
tinuous operation  should  be  sought  for  to  avoid  delay.  No  part  of  the  trans- 
ference should  be  along  the  floor  and  the  equipment  should  not  take  up  any 
floor  space  that  can  be  used  for  other  purpose.  All  movements  of  the  me- 
chanical equipment  should  allow  of  the  assorting  and  distributing  according 
to  classification  and  allotted  space  readily  and  quickly.  There  must  be  re- 
serve capacity  to  prevent  congestion,  in  case  of  extra  demands. 

The  justification  for  the  investment  of  the  mechanical  installation  lies 
in  the  reduction  of  cost  and  the  saving  of  time  in  handling.  The  expense 
should  be  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  terminal. 

Fully  to  cover  the  floor  space  and  obtain  all  the  different  requirements 
for  the  satisfactory  handling  of  the  package  freight,  three  units  or  different 
types  of  conveying  machinery  are  necessary.  These  are  the  single  rail  elec- 
tric trolley,  the  bridge  traveler  and  the  cross  traveler.  The  electric  trolley 
is  the  actual  load  carrying  part  of  the  equipment,  the  single  rail,  bridge 
traveler  and  cross  traveler  furnishing  a  combination  of  loop  track  system  on 
which  the  trolley  can  reach  any  part  of  the  area  to  be  covered.  All  move- 
ments should  be  so  regulated  that  there  will  be  no  interference,  and  many 
trolleys  can  be  in  operation  following  one  another.  Each  trolley  can  draw  a 
number  of  trailer  trolleys,  so  that  many  packages  can  be  hoisted  and  trans- 
ported under  the  control  of  one  man.  This  arrangement  allows  many  loads 
to  be  transported  in  close  sequence  simultaneously,  and  with  maximum  hoist- 
ing and  traversing  speeds,  gives  the  greatest  range  and  capacity  at  a  min- 
imum of  labor  and  maintenance.  At  some  freight  terminals  it  may  be  neces- 
sary to  have,  in  combination  with  the  above  mechanical  conveyors,  motor 
trucks  on  the  surface;  in  others,  belt  conveyors. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  some  such  scheme  as  outlined  above,  when  prop- 
erly carried  out  to  meet  the  special  requirements  at  any  terminal,  would 
materially  reduce  the  time  and  cost  involved  in  the  present  method.  This 
has  already  been  exemplified  in  the  handling  of  bulk  material. 

Considering  the  special  attention  now  being  given  this  question  by 
several  engineers  and  the  interest  shown  by  many  steamship  and  railroad 
managers,  it  can  be  safely  stated  that  within  the  next  few  years  great 
changes  and  developments  will  be  accomplished. 


THE    GENERAL    SOLUTION    FOR    ALTERNATING    CURRENT 

DISTRIBUTIONS. 

By  GEORGE  A.  CAMPBELL,  '91, 
Research  Engineer,  American  Telephone  and  Telegraph  Co.,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

IT  is  the  object  of  this  paper  to  present  the  concepts  and  methods  by 
means  of  which  the  practical  determination  of  the  distribution  of  alternat- 
ing currents  in  any  particular  finite  network  may  be  obtained  with  the 
minimum  difficulty.  The  use  of  complex  quantities  in  alternating  current 
theory  will  be  placed  in  a  new  light  and  the  complex  exponential  function 
will  be  shown  to  possess  power  and  energy  properties  which  are  of  funda- 
mental importance.  Maxwell's  theorem  of  the  minimum  heat  generated 
will  be  generalized  so  as  to  include  all  electrical  phenomena,  both  real  and 
imaginary,  in  any  invariable  network.  The  general  solution  for  oscillations, 
either  forced  or  free,  in  a  network  will  be  presented  in  various  forms  and 
the  advantage  of  employing  these  solutions  instead  of  going  back  to  the 
fundamental  differential  equations  or  to  KirchhofFs  laws,  will  be  explained. 
I  have  given  a  mathematical  treatment  of  these  matters  elsewhere  x  and 
shall  confine  myself  in  this  paper  to  a  less  technical  discussion  of  the  points 
involved.  This  will  prevent  going  into  details  as  much  as  might  be  desir- 
able, but  the  real  difficulty  in  a  matter  of  this  complexity  is  that  the  utility 
and  defects  of  the  method  can  be  appreciated  only  after  familiarity  with  the 
mathematical  expressions  involved  has  been  acquired  by  actual  experience. 
This  discussion  will  be  confined  to  the  electrical  problem,  but  its  applica- 
tion is  to  mechanics  generally. 

COMPLEX  QUANTITIES  AND  POWER. 

Although  complex  quantities  have  been  employed  in  the  mathematical 
discussion  of  forced  and  free  oscillations  for  over  thirty  years,  the  funda- 
mentally important  character  of  exponential  oscillations  has  not  received  due 
recognition.  Their  use  has  been  regarded  more  as  an  accidental  or  artificial 

1  Proceedings  American  Institute  of  Electrical  Engineers,  April,  1911,  pp. 

789-824. 

293 


294       SOLUTION  FOR  ALTERNATING  CURRENT  DISTRIBUTIONS 

device  for  facilitating  the  discussion  of  sinusoidal  oscillations;  the  method 
has  been  referred  to  as  giving  a  symbolical  solution,  the  imaginary  part  of 
which  is  finally  to  be  thrown  away ;  or  it  has  been  looked  upon  as  a  vectorial 
representation  of  the  polar  coordinate  diagram  of  the  sinusoidal  oscillation. 
To  illustrate,  the  following  is  the  entire  explanation  of  the  symbolical 
method  contained  in  Lord  Rayleigh's  Theory  of  Sound  (Vol.  I,  section  104, 
1877  and  1894)  : 

"  We  might  therefore  assume  as  expressions  for  W^,  &c.,  circular  func- 
tions of  the  time ;  but,  as  we  shall  have  frequent  occasion  to  recognize  in  the 
course  of  this  work,  it  is  usually  more  convenient  to  employ  an  imaginary 
exponential  function,  such  as  Eeiptf  where  E  is  a  constant  which  may  be 
complex.  When  the  corresponding  symbolical  solution  is  obtained,  its  real 
and  imaginary  parts  may  be  separated,  and  belong  respectively  to  the  real 
and  imaginary  parts  of  the  data.  In  this  way  the  analysis  gains  considerably 
in  brevity,  inasmuch  as  differentiations  and  alterations  of  phase  are  ex- 
pressed by  merely  modifying  the  complex  coefficient  without  changing  the 
form  of  the  function/' 

As  a  consequence  the  imaginary  exponential  function  has  not  been  in- 
vestigated as  an  independent  entity  and  its  properties  have  been  ignored 
except  in  so  far  as  they  could  be  considered  as  representing  the  real  sinusoid- 
al oscillation.  The  attempts  which  have  been  made  on  this  basis  to  extend 
the  correspondence  between  the  two  to  include  power  and  energy  have  failed. 
The  fact  is  that  to  make  complex  quantities  as  useful  as  possible  we  must 
cease  to  regard  the  imaginary  exponential  function  as  in  any  way  represent- 
ing the  real  sinusoidal  function.  When  the  exponential  function  is  granted 
an  independent  existence,  all  difficulties  vanish. 

The  energy  associated  with  any  complex  current  distribution  is  then  to 
be  found  by  the  same  algebraical  rules  as  apply  to  real  instantaneous  elec- 
tromotive forces  and  currents:  that  is,  the  power  dissipated  equals  the  re- 
sistance into  the  square  of  the  current ;  the  energy  of  a  magnetic  field  equals 
the  product  of  one-half  the  inductance  into  the  square  of  the  current ;  and 
the  energy  of  an  electrostatic  field  equals  the  product  of  one-half  the  capacity 
into  the  square  of  the  difference  of  potential.  These  generalizations  are  not 
properly  matters  of  definition ;  they  are  necessary  consequences  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  algebra,  and  follow  immediately  just  as  do  the  rules  for  the  squares 
and  logarithms  of  complex  quantities.  An  important  result  is  that  when 
non-real  electrical  phenomena  are  included,  the  physical  limitation  of  energy 
to  essentially  positive  values  no  longer  holds.  Therefore,  in  the  general 
algebraical  treatment,  energy  may  be  negative,  pure  imaginary  or  complex 
equally  as  well  as  positive.  For  example,  if  the  current  flowing  in  an  ordi- 


GEOEGE    A.    CAMPBELL,   '91  295 

nary  inductive  coil  is  pure  imaginary  the  power  dissipated  in  the  resistance 
of  the  coil  and  the  energy  stored  in  the  magnetic  field  will  each  be  negative ; 
that  is,  the  current  will  tend  to  cool  the  conductor,  which  will  tend  to  absorb 
heat  from  its  surroundings,  and  the  magnetic  field  must  have  abstracted 
energy  from  the  ether  which  originally  contained  no  magnetic  energy. 
Algebraically,  no  difficulty  is  raised  by  these  physical  impossibilities. 

A  special  terminology  for  the  complex  exponential  function  may  be 
expected  to  aid  in  emphasizing  its  fundamental  importance  and  usefulness. 
For  this  reason  I  suggest  that  the  term  "  cisoidal  oscillation  "  be  used  to 
designate  the  function  of  the  time  defined  by  the  exponential  raised  to  the 
ipt  power;  this  oscillation  may  be  sustained,  damped  or  aperiodic,  which 
correspond  to  real,  complex  or  pure  imaginary  values  of  the  time  coefficient 
p.  The  use  of  the  particular  term  "  cisoidal  oscillation  "  will  emphasize  the 
distinctive  character  of  the  subject,  while  tending  to  keep  in  mind  the  close 
connection  between  these  oscillations  and  sinusoidal  oscillations. 

For  cisoidal  oscillations,  the  instantaneous  activity,  being  always  the 
product  of  the  instantaneous  electromotive  force  and  current,  is  a  cisoidal 
function  of  doubled  time  coefficient :  the  power  agrees  with  the  electromo- 
tive force  and  current  as  to  whether  it  is  sustained,  logarithmically  damped 
or  aperiodic.  Therefore,  the  power  has  in  general  a  uniformly  increasing 
argument  so  that  in  each  cycle  it  assumes  positive  and  negative  real  values 
and  postive  and  negative  pure  imaginary  values  as  well  as  intermediate  com- 
plex values.  With  sustained  oscillations  the  power  is  of  constant  absolute 
value  or  modulus;  its  argument  varies  with  the  time,  but  in  this  particular 
case  its  modulus  is  invariable. 

With  cisoidal  oscillations  either  the  electromotive  force  or  the  current 
may  be  eliminated  from  the  expression  for  the  power  by  introducing  the  im- 
pedance which  is  defined  as  the  ratio  of  the  instantaneous  electromotive 
force  to  current,  the  power  being  thereby  expressed  at  pleasure  either  as  the 
product  of  the  impedance  and  the  square  of  the  current,  or  as  the  quotient  of 
the  square  of  the  electromotive  force  and  the  impedance.  The  total  power 
in  any  network  carrying  cisoidal  oscillations  is  equal  to  the  algebraical  sum 
of  the  powers  associated  with  each  impedance  in  the  network. 

The  distinction  between  the  scalar  cisoidal  function  and  a  true  vector 
function  is  well  illustrated  by  the  Poynting  electromagnetic  flux  of  energy  in 
the  case  of  a  cisoidal  oscillation,  which  happens  to  be  the  application  for 
which  I  first  employed  cisoidal  power.  The  actual  energy  flux  is  a  true 
vector  which  may  or  may  not  vary  in  direction  and  magnitude  from  point  to 
point  in  the  field  and  from  moment  to  moment.  The  imaginary  cisoidal 
energy  flux  has,  in  addition  to  these  possible  vectorial  variations,  its  char- 


296       SOLUTION  FOR  ALTERNATING  CURRENT   DISTRIBUTIONS 

acteristic  variation  with  respect  to  the  time  which  is  resolvable  into  a  uni- 
formly increasing  argument  and  an  exponentially  decreasing  (becoming 
constant  in  the  steady  state)  modulus.  Not  only  do  the  vectors  and  com- 
plex quantities  exist  side  by  side  independently  of  each  other,  but  they  differ 
radically  in  the  properties  which  they  exhibit  as  is  shown  by  the  fact  that 
the  square  of  a  vector  is  independent  of  the  direction  of  the  vector  while  the 
square  of  a  complex  quantity  varies  as  its  argument  is  varied. 

In  the  treatment  of  cisoidal  oscillations  it  is  advantageous  to  adhere 
closely  to  the  notation  and  terminology  of  the  theory  of  functions,  as  the 
results  presented  by  this  branch  of  mathematics  are  of  the  greatest  value  in 
the  more  complicated  electrical  problems. 

CORRELATED  OSCILLATIONS. 

The  complete  solution  of  a  sustained  or  damped  alternating  current 
problem  by  the  aid  of  complex  quantities  involves  the  following  distinct 
steps : 

1.  Resolution  of  the  periodic  data  into  the  sum  of  cisoidal  oscillations 
having  the  time  factors  cis  (+pt)  and  cis  (—  pt). 

2.  Solution  of  the  problem  for  the  cis  (+pt)  component  taken  alone; 
the  solution  of  the  cis  (—  pt)  component  being  obtained  by  merely  changing 
all  complex  quantities  to  their  conjugates.    . 

3.  Superposition  of  these  two  cisoidal  solutions  to  obtain  the  real 
physical  oscillation. 

It  is,  however,  not  necessary  to  carry  through  the  formal  proof  in  in- 
dividual cases,  this  being  replaced  by  the  following  rule  for  the  correlation 
between  the  real  and  the  complex  oscillations. 

If  any  particuar  cisoidal  or  cosinusoidal  oscillation  is  possible  the 
correlated  oscillation  is  also  possible;  correlated  cisoidal  and  cosinusoidal 
oscillations  being  such  as  have  electromotive  forces  and  currents  of  the 
same  effective  values  and  angles.  The  oscillatory  powers  associated  with 
the  correlated  oscillations  are  of  the  same  amplitudes  and  angles,  but  the 
cosinusoidal  oscillation  has  also  a  non-oscillatory  power  component  which 
has  the  same  amplitude  and  phase  angle  as  the  power  which  would  be  in- 
volved in  the  correlated  cisoidal  oscillation  after  changing  the  current  to 
its  conjugate.  For  the  sake  of  brevity  in  this  correlation,  the  modulus  of 
a  cisoidal  function  is  referred  to  indifferently  as  its  effective  value  or  am- 
plitude, while  its  argument  is  referred  to  as  its  angle. 

The  correlation  between  sinusoidal  oscillations  and  cisoidal  oscillations 
is  so  simple  that  it  is  not  ordinarily  necessary  to  indicate  the  step  from  one 


GEOBGE    A.    CAMPBELL,   '91  •   297 

to  the  other  in  individual  applications.  But  this  omission  has  led  to  the 
cisoidal  solution  being  in  some  way  regarded  as  representing  the  actual 
sinusoidal  oscillation,  which  is  not  the  case,  as  is  most  emphatically  shown 
by  the  power  relations.  It  is  therefore  necessary  to  lay  emphasisjippn  the 
fact  that  the  use  of  complex  quantities  affords  an  indirect  method,  and 
not  a  symbolic  method  of  solving  the  problem  of  real  oscillations,  and 
that  the  complete  formal  application  of  the  method  involves  always  .an  in- 
itial algebraical  resolution  of  the  real  data  and  a  final  algebraical  sum- 
mation of  the  complex  results  as  an  essential  and  integral  part  of  the 
problem.  The  above  rule  has  merely  formulated  the  final  result  of  taking 
these  successive  steps  in  the  correlation  of  the  analytical  cisoidal  oscilla- 
tion and  the  physical  sinusoidal  oscillation.  Whenever  it  becomes  necessary 
to  consider  any  property  of  the  oscillation  not  covered  by  the  rule,  we  must 
revert  to  the  formal  resolution  and  subsequent  superposition.  In  applying 
this  method,  we  shall  have  to  include  not  only  the  electromotive  force, 
current,  impedance,  and  power  of  the  cisoidal  oscillation,  but  also  (when- 
ever the  total  or  the  average  real  powers  are  required)  the  mutual  power 
associated  with  the  cisoidal  electromotive  force  and  the  conjugate  of  its 
corresponding  current. 

In  the  actual  discussion  of  alternating  current  problems  by  complex 
quantities,  the  terminology  and  symbols  employed  should  refer  throughout 
specificially  to  the  cisoidal  oscillation.  Agreement  on  this  point  will  pro- 
mote precision  of  statement  and  avoid  fostering  the  idea  that  the  complex 
solution  in  some  way  represents  the  real  case.  Of  course,  I  am  not  to  be 
understood  as  stating  that  it  is  never  advantageous  to  discuss  the  real 
oscillation  per  se,  I  am  merely  advocating  that  when  complex  quantities 
are  employed,  the  entire  discussion  be  made  to  refer  consistently  to  the 
cisoidal  oscillation. 

Having  explained  how  the  method  of  complex  quantities  may  be  pushed 
further  than  it  has  been  in  the  past,  we  will  now  consider  the  distribution! 
of  complex  or  cisoidal  alternating  currents.  It  will,  if  possible,  be  advan- 
tageous to  reduce  the  electrical  conditions  to  a  single  statement  of  a  mini- 
mum or  maximum  property,  and  now  that  we  have  extended  the  idea 
of  energy,  power  and  activity  so  as  to  include  complex  as  well  as  real 
quantities,  it  can  be  shown  that  there  is  no  difficulty  in  doing  this.  The 
theorem  expressed  in  the  most  general  form  in  which  we  shall  have  occasion 
to  consider  it  at  this  time  is  as  follows: 


298       SOLUTION  FOB  ALTERNATING  CURRENT   DISTRIBUTIONS 


The  Theorem  of  Stationary  Dissipation 

In  any  invariable  network  the  actual  distribution  of  current  due  to 
any  impressed  electromotive  forces  is  such  as  to  make  the  power  dissipated 
assume  the  stationary  value  which  is  consistent  with  the  conditions  imposed 
by  current  continuity  and  the  conservation  of  energy. 

The  theorem  assumes  that  each  branch  or  circuit  contains  resistance, 
a  condition  which  corresponds  to  the  physical  fact  and  involves  no  theoret- 
ical limitation  as  the  resistances  may  be  made  as  small  as  desired,  or  any 
number  of  resistances  may  be  allowed  to  vanish  completely  after  playing 
their  part  in  the  formation  of  the  general  solution.  Forced  and  free  oscil- 
lations and  transient  states  are  included.  The  network  may  contain  re- 
sistances, inductances,  mutual  inductances  and  capacity;  it  is  merely  stip- 
ulated that  these  shall  all  be  invariable  in  magnitude.  As  formulated, 
the  theorem  specifies  that  the  dissipated  power  shall  be  stationary.  This 
is  done  so  as  to  include  complex  quantities  as  well  as  real  quantities. 
Where  real  quantities  only  are  concerned,  the  dissipated  energy  is  a  mini- 
mum for  constant  current  supply  and  a  maximum  for  constant  voltage 
supply. 

This  theorem  is  a  generalization  of  Maxwell's  theorem  that  "  in  any 
system  of  conductors  in  which  there  are  no  internal  electromotive  forces 
the  heat  generated  "  by  steady  currents  under  given  "  conditions  of  supply 
and  outflow  of  the  current "  is  a  minimum.1  Internal  electromotive 
forces  were  included  by  J.  J.  Thomson,  but  the  theorem  as  enunciated  by 
him  2  applies  not  directly  to  the  heat  generated  but  to  a  mathematical 
function  to  which  he  attached  no  specific  physical  significance.  It  is  readily 
seen  that  the  theorems  of  Maxwell  and  of  J.  J.  Thomson  are  complemen- 
tary, the  first  referring  to  constant  current  supply,  the  second  referring  to 
constant  voltage  supply,  the  dissipation  being  a  minimum  in  the  first  case 
and  a  maximum  in  the  second  case.  The  two  theorems  are  contained  in 
the  single  statement  that  the  equivalent  resistance  of  any  network  to  steady 
currents  is  a  minimum. 

In  discussing  periodic  currents,  J.  J.  Thomson  states  that  when  the  fre- 
quency increases  indefinitely  "  the  distribution  of  currents  is  independent 
of  the  resistances,  and  is  determined  by  the  condition  that  the  Kinetic 
Energy  and  not  the  Dissipation  Function  is  a  minimum."  3  This  state- 

1  Maxwell,  Electricity  and  Magnetism,  Vol.  I,  p.  408 

2  Ibid,  foot  note. 

3  J.  J.  Thomson,  Recent  Researches  in  Electricity  and  Magnetism,  p.  511. 


GEOKGE    A.    CAMPBELL,   '91  299 

ment  seems  to  have  been  tacitly  accepted  by  every  one  because  of  the  rela- 
tive prominence  of  the  kinetic  energy  and  the  relative  insignificance  of  the 
dissipation.  But  the  statement  is  incorrect  since  it  is  the  dissipation 
which  always  assumes  an  exact  stationary  value.  For  stationary-kinetic 
energy  the  resistances  must  actually  vanish,  but  in  this  case  the  dis- 
sipation still  retains  its  stationary  property  since  it  vanishes  regardless  of 
the  current  distribution.  Moreover,  J.  J.  Thomson's  statement  is  not 
sufficiently  explicit  as  to  the  assumed  conditions  of  current  supply.  The 
kinetic  energy  would  be  a  maximum  and  not  a  minimum  provided  the 
electrical  distribution  were  due  to  sources  of  constant  electromotive  force. 
It  is  the  equivalent  self-induction  which  becomes  ultimately  a  minimum 
when  a  system  of  electrical  conductors  is  subject  to  rapid  periodic  electro- 
motive forces. 

Eeference  to  Professor  Jeans7  treatise  *•  shows  that  the  most  recent 
writers  do  not  go  beyond  Maxwell  and  J.  J.  Thomson  in  this  direction, 
but  merely  repeat  these  theorems  of  minimum  heat  and  minimum  kinetic 
energy.  The  distinction  between  constant  current  supply  and  constant 
voltage  supply  is  not  pointed  out.  For  rapidly  alternating  currents  this 
failure  is  a  result  of  neglecting  the  impressed  forces  Es  (in  comparison  with 
the  first  term  of  equation  520,  p.  489)  which  is  not  permissible,  as  is 
readily  seen  by  reducing  the  system  to  a  single  circuit  containing  an 
alternating  impressed  force  and  a  pure  inductance;  the  impressed  force 
is  then  equal  to  the  first  term  (reactance  X  current)  and  in  consequence  can 
not  be  neglected  in  comparison  with  the  first  term. 

For  cisoidal  oscillations  our  theorem  assumes  the  following  still  simpler 
form: 

The  activity  of  the  external  sources  of  power  which  produce  a  steady 
cisoidal  oscillation  in  any  invariable  network  assumes  the  stationary  value 
which  is  consistent  with  the  conditions  imposed  by  current  continuity  and 
the  conservation  of  energy.  As  the  activity  is  stationary,  the  driving 
point  impedance  of  the  network  will  also  be  stationary  and  this  condition 
is  an  equivalent  form  of  the  theorem. 

This  theorem  is  of  trie  greatest  usefulness  in  the  discussion  of  alternat- 
ing current  networks  since  a  large  number  of  fundamental  properties  follow 
immediately  from  it,  and  any  network  may  be  solved  by  the  application  of 
this  theorem  without  introducing  any  other  conditions,  such  as  the  ques- 
tion as  to  how  the  individual  impedances  may  be  made  up,  into  the 
discussion. 

JJ.  H.  Jeans,  The  Mathematical  Theory  of  Electricity  and  Magnetism,  pp. 
310-313,  489-490. 


300       SOLUTION  FOR  ALTERNATING  CURRENT  DISTRIBUTIONS 

General  Solution  for  Cisoidal  Oscillations 

The  general  solution  for  any  cisoidal  oscillation  is  contained  in  a 
single  algebraical  function  of  the  self  and  mutual  impedances  occurring  in 
the  network.  This  function,  which  will  here  be  denoted  by  the  letter  A, 
may  be  written  down  by  the  following  rule: 

The  expression,  A  is  the  sum  of  all  possible  products  in  which  each 
circuit  is  represented  either  by  its  self-impedance  or  by  its  mutual  imped- 
ance to  another  circuit,  the  mutual  impedances  occurring  in  closed  cycles, 
each  cycle  introducing  the  sign  factor  +  (or  — )  if  it  contains  an  odd  (or 
even)  number  of  elements,  each  cycle  of  three  or  more  elements  also  intro- 
ducing the  factor,  2,  to  care  for  the  alternative  way  of  associating  the 
mutual  impedances  and  circuits. 

This  statement  assumes  that  the  system  consists  entirely  of  simple 
circuits  connected  by  mutual  impedances  only.  Any  network  may  be  re- 
duced to  an  equivalent  network  of  this  description  by  closing  each  branch 
on  itself  and  replacing  each  branch  point  (in  excess  of  one  in  each  con- 
nected part  of  the  system)  by  a  fictitious  circuit  of  zero  self -impedance 
connected  by  mutual  impedances,  -\-i  (or — i}  to  the  several  branches  which 
have  their  positive  (or  negative)  ends  at  this  branch  point. 

In  the  most  general  case  each  circuit  will  have  self -impedance  and  also 
mutual  impedance  to  every  other  circuit.  In  special  cases  any  of  these 
impedances  may  vanish,  but  they  will  always  be  assumed  to  exist  potentially 
in  the  expression  A  so  that  we  may  speak  of  differentiating  the  expression 
A  with  respect  to  any  self  or  mutual  impedance. 

To  illustrate  the  use  of  function  A  suppose  that  a  cisoidal  electro- 
motive force  is  applied  at  any  point  of  the  network  and  the  resulting  cur^ 
rent  at  any  other  point  of  the  network  is  required.  This  current  will  be 
found  by  dividing  the  electromotive  force  by  what  may  be  called  the  cross 
impedance  between  the  two  points.  This  cross  impedance  is  equal  to  the  func- 
tion A,  divided  by  one-half  of  the  differential  coefficient  of  A  with  respect 
to  the  mutual  impedance  between  the  circuits  containing  the  two  points. 

If  the  current  at  the  electromotive  force  is  required,  the  cross  impe- 
dance becomes  the  driving  point  impedance,  which  is  equal  to  the  alge- 
braical function  A,  divided  by  the  differential  coefficient  of  A  with  respect 
to  the  self-impedance  of  the  circuit  containing  the  electromotive  force. 

If  the  free  oscillations  of  the  system  are  required,  they  are  found  by 
solving  the  equation  obtained  by  equating  the  expression  A  to  zero. 

This  solution  is  applicable  to  any  network  containing  resistance,  in- 
ductance, mutual  inductance,  capacity,  and  conductance,  and  it  may  be 


GEORGE    A.    CAMPBELL,   '91  301 

written  down  mechanically.  The  expression  A  is  symmetrical  in  terms 
of  all  the  branches  and  of  all  the  branch  points,  in  that  it  makes  no  differ- 
ence in  the  final  result  what  choice  is  made  for  the  excluded  branch  point 
in  each  connected  part  of  the  system.  In  general  work  this  symmetry  pre- 
sents distinct  advantages,  but  in  special  applications  it  is  ordinarily  better 
to  reduce  the  number  of  simple  circuits  as  far  as  possible.  This  may  be 
done  by  basing  the  equivalent  set  of  simple  circuits  upon  any  system  of 
circuital  currents  which  correspond  with  the  'degrees  of  freedom  of  the 
network.  The  self  and  mutual  impedances  corresponding  to  these  cir- 
cuital currents  may  be  directly  determined  in  any  case,  and  then  the  ex- 
pression A  is  found  exactly  as  explained  above.  The  immediate  form 
assumed  by  the  expression  will  depend  upon  the  particular  system  of  cir- 
cuital currents  chosen,  and  a  variety  of  mutually  equivalent  expressions  may 
be  obtained  in  this  way  for  a  network  of  any  complexity. 

The  case  of  three  resistances,  a,  ~b,  and  c  in  parallel,  may  serve  as  an 
illustration  of  the  two  methods  of  resolving  a  network  into  simple  circuits. 
Take  as  positive  directions  the  direction  in  each  branch  towards  the  same 
branch  point.  On  adding  a  fictitious  circuit  to  replace  one  of  the  branch 
points,  we  have  a  system  of  four  simple  circuits  of  self-impedances,  a,,  b,  c, 
and  0,  with  no  mutual  impedances,  except  +i,  +i,  -f-i,  between  the  fic- 
titious circuit  and  the  circuits  corresponding  to  the  three  resistance  branches. 
Resolving  the  same  network  by  means  of  circuital  currents,  we  may  ob- 
tain a  system  of  two  simple  circuits  having  the  self -impedances  (a-\-c) 
and  (&+c),  with  the  mutual  impedance,  -\-c. 

The  expression  A,  upon  which  the  entire  solution  for  the  network 
is  thus  made  to  depend,  may  also  be  stated  in  determinantal  form.  This 
determinant  has  for  its  elements  the  impedances  of  the  system,  the  qfh 
term  in  the  main  diagonal  being  the  self -impedance  of  the  qth  circuit,  and 
the  rth  term  in  the  qfh  row  being  the  mutual  impedance  between  circuits 
q  and  r.  The  determinant  can,  therefore,  be  written  down  with  the  great- 
est facility.  Whether  it  will  be  more  convenient  than  the  expanded  expres- 
sion, depends  upon  the  particular  use  which  is  to  be  made  of  it.  Famil- 
iarity with  both  forms  of  the  function  A,  is  desirable,  so  as  to  be  prepared 
to  employ  the  more  convenient  form  in  each  particular  case. 

Determinantal  solutions  have  been  employed  to  a  certain  extent  in  the 
discussion  of  the  general  properties  of  networks,  but  they  have  not  been  pre- 
sented as  practical  working  solutions,  the  writers  themselves  reverting  to 
the  differential  equations  or  to  KirchhofFs  laws  in  the  discussion  of  special 
applications.  Heaviside  expresses  this  point  of  view  when  he  says  1 :  . 

1  Heaviside,  Electrical  Papers,  I,  p.  412, 


302       SOLUTION  FOR   ALTERNATING   CURRENT   DISTRIBUTIONS 

"  Owing  to  the  difficulties  of  interpretation,  the  general  solution  has 
very  limited  utility,  except  in  showing  how  we  might,  if  we  gave  the  time 
to  it,  completely  solve  the  problem  numerically.  But  there  are,  on  the 
journey  to  the  general  solution,  some  views  by  the  way  which  make  it  more 
interesting  and  instructive  than  it  would  otherwise  be,  and  it  is  to  exhibit 
them,  rather  than  a  mere  mathematical  complication,  that  the  present 
section  is  written." 

I  am  ready  to  admit  that  the  particular  presentation  given  by  Heavi- 
side  comes  very  near  being  "  a  mere  mathematical  complication,"  but  the 
general  solution  may  be  put  in  such  shape  as  to  admit  of  interpretation  and 
give  the  numerical  solution  more  readily  than  it  can  be  obtained  in  any 
other  way.  It  is  to  be  observed  that  the  solution  of  even  apparently  simple 
network  problems  is  inherently  complex.  For  example,  the  Wheatstone 
bridge  circuit  with  its  full  complement  of  fifteen  mutual  impedances  con- 
tains several  hundred  distinct  terms  in  the  expression  A,  provided  this  ex- 
pression is  written  in  terms  of  the  self  and  mutual  impedances  of  the  indi- 
vidual branches.  Now,  this  is  a  case  of  only  three  degrees  of  freedom,  so  that 
the  complexity  of  the  solution  mounts  very  rapidly  with  the  number  of 
branches  involved.  Solutions  of  practical  utility  must  retain  only  that 
which  is  essential  and  ignore  that  which  is  non-essential.  The  discovery 
of  the  dividing  line  between  the  essential  and  the  non-essential  is,  I  believe, 
facilitated  by  the  use  of  the  general  solution. 

Properly  presented,  I  believe  that  the  general  solution  is  of  the  great- 
est utility,  that  it  is  the  simplest  expression  of  which  the  problem  admits, 
and  that  it  is  in  such  form  as  to  be  most  easily  remembered  and  applied. 
After  becoming  familiar  with  its  use,  it  seems  most  roundabout  to  start 
each  time  with  the  differential  equations.  A  determinant  is  to  be  regarded 
as  a  kind  of  generalized  multiplication  table.  To  go  back  to  the  differential 
equations  instead  of  employing  the  determinantal  solution,  is  something 
like  disregarding  the  ordinary  multiplication  table  and  working  out  required 
products  each  time  by  successive  additions. 

Summary 

To  emphasize  the  broad  applicability  of  the  general  solution,  I  may 
repeat  that  it  includes  forced  and  free  vibrations,  and  the  entire  domain  of 
transient  phenomena ;  it  is  applicable  to  infinite  systems  of  circuits,  thereby 
including  such  phenomena  as  eddy  currents  and  skin  effects,  which  involve 
transcendental  functions  and  are  ordinarily  solved  by  means  of  partial 
differential  equations.  While  it  is  important  that  fundamental  principles 


GEOKGE    A.    CAMPBELL,    '91  303 

should  be  understood,  it  is  also  true  that  without  a  working  knowledge  of 
the  general  solution,,  a  great  deal  of  time  and  energy  will  be  wasted  in  going 
back  to  fundamental  principles  in  the  case  of  each  particular  application. 
For  the  details  which  are  so  essential  in  this  subject,  I  must  refer- to  the 
paper  cited  above  1 ;  this  brief  discussion  has  been  restricted  to  presenting : 
(1)  the  working  conception  of  cisoidal  oscillations  and  cisoidal  power;  (2) 
the  comprehensive  theorem  of  stationary  dissipation  or  of  stationary  im- 
pedance, as  it  becomes  in  the  case  of  cisoidal  oscillations,  arid  (3)  the 
practical  utility  of  the  general  solution  expressed  either  in  determinantal 
or  in  expanded  form. 
1  Page  293. 


ELECTEOCHEMISTEY  AND  ITS  EECENT  INDUSTEIAL 
DEVELOPMENT. 

By  HARRY  M.  GOODWIN,  '90, 

Professor  of  Physics  and  Electrochemistry,  at  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of 

Technology. 

IT  has  seemed  appropriate  to  include  among  the  papers  presented  be- 
fore this  section  of  the  Congress  of  Technology,  one,  giving  an  outline  of 
the  remarkable  industrial  development  of  electrochemistry  in  recent  years, 
and  pointing  out  some  of  the  directions  in  which  further  progress  may  be 
expected  in  the  future.  It  may  not  be  generally  known  that  the  subject 
has  assumed  such  importance  that  the  last  course  leading  to  a  bachelor's 
degree  to  be  established  at  the  Institute,  has  been  primarily  laid  out  to 
prepare  students  to  enter  this  particular  field  of  applied  science.  This 
course,  established  by  the  Department  of  Physics  in  1901,  was  the  first  of 
its  kind  to  be  offered  in  this  country.  Twenty-eight  men  have  already 
graduated  who  are  filling  responsible  positions  throughout  the  United  States 
as  well  as  in  Canada  and  England,  and  the  increasing  demand  for  men 
with  a  combined  training  in  electrical  engineering  and  chemistry  idicates 
that  the  profession  of  electrochemist  is  one  of  increasing  importance  and 
opportunity. 

Strictly  speaking,  electrochemistry  embraces  those  phenomena  and 
processes  which  are  the  result  either  of  the  direct  transformation  of  elec- 
trical into  chemical  eneregy,  or  of  the  converse  transformation  of  chemical 
into  electrical  energy.  The  former  includes  all  electrolytic  processes, 
whether  taking  place  in  liquids,  solids  or  gases ;  the  latter  includes  all  types 
of  primary  and  secondary  batteries,  i.e.,  generators  of  electricity  by  chemical 
means.  As  thus  defined,  however,  electrochemistry  excludes  many  processes 
which  at  the  present  time  are  almost  universally  classed  as  elctrochemical, 
namely,  those  which  utilize  electrical  energy  primarily  as  a  means  of  gener- 
ating heat  at  exceedingly  high  temperatures,  temperatures  so  high  that 
chemical  reactions  may  occur  which  are  impossible  at  the  lower  temper- 
atures developed  by  ordinary  means  of  combustion.  Such  processes  are 
electrochemical  only  in  a  secondary  sense,  since  electrical  energy  plays  no 

304 


HARRY   M.    GOODWIN,   '90  305 

other  role  than  that  of  a  heat  producing  agent.  It  is,  therefore,  appropriate 
to  class  these  processes  as  electrothermic  or  electrothermal;  strictly,  they 
are  simply  thermochemical  but  carried  out  in  electric  furnaces.  Finally, 
there  are  certain  important  processes  which  require  a  combination  of  both 
the  electrolytic  and  the  heating  effect  of  a  current  for  their  successful  opera- 
tion, and  thus  fall  into  both  classes.  The  term  electrochemistry,  especially 
as  applied  to  the  industrial  arts,  has  by  general  usage  now  come  to  connote 
electrothermic  as  well  as  electrolytic  processes. 

Various  causes  have  contributed  to  the  rapid  rise  of  applied  electro- 
chemistry during  the  last  two  decades.  The  electrolytic  industries  which  are 
of  special  interest  fall  into  two  distinct  groups  according  as  they  are  carried 
out  in  aqueous  solutions,  or  in  fusions.  The  former  group  embraces  the 
plating,  refining  and  galvanoplastic  industries  as  well  as  those  depending  on 
the  decomposition,  oxidation  and  reduction  of  substances  by  the  electric  cur- 
rent ;  chief  among  these  are  the  alkali  industries.  Under  the  latter  group  of 
fusion  processes  fall  the  electrometallurgical  winning  of  the  alkali  and  alkali 
earth  metals  and  of  aluminum.  The  phenomena  accompanying  electrolysis 
when  carried  out  in  aqueous  solutions  at  ordinary  temperatures  have  been 
extensively  studied  and  a  very  satisfactory  working  theory  of  electrolysis 
under  these  conditions  has  been  developed.  On  the  other  hand  the  electro- 
chemistry of  substances  dissolved  in  organic  solvents  and  of  salts  in  the  fused 
and  solid  state  is  still  incompletely  understood.  More  accurate  data  are 
necessary  before  a  satisfactory  theory  can  be  formulated  regarding  the  mech- 
anism of  conduction  in  these  cases.  Some  of  the  most  reliable  data  which 
we  possess  at  present  on  the  conductivity  and  related  properties  of  fused 
electrolytes  have  been  obtained  by  investigations  carried  out  in  the  Institute 
laboratories  under  a  grant  from  William  E.  Hale  Eesearch  Fund. 

Of  the  industries  mentioned  above,  electroplating,  galvanoplasty  and 
electrolytic  refining  represent  the  older  phase  of  applied  electrochemistry, 
these  processes  having  been  developed  and  practiced  on  a  smaller  or  larger 
scale  for  over  fifty  years.  The  reason  for  their  early  origin  is  that  they 
require  relatively  little  electrical  energy.  The  processes  consist  essentially 
in  a  simple  electrolytic  transfer  of  metal  from  anode  through  the  solu- 
tion to  the  cathode,  a  transfer  involving  the  expenditure  of  only  so  much 
energy  as  is  required  to  overcome  heat  losses  in  leads,  connections,  and  in 
the  electrolyte,  and  the  effects  of  polarization.  They  were,  therefore,  com- 
mercially possible  in  the  early  days  of  the  dynamo  and  even  while  primary 
batteries  and  thermo-piles  were  the  only  available  sources  of  electrical 
energy.  With  the  development  of  the  dynamo,  these  industries  have,  of 
course,  greatly  expanded.  As  the  cost  of  electrical  energy  consumed  is  but 


306      ELECTROCHEMISTRY  AND  ITS  INDUSTRIAL  DEVELOPMENT 

a  minor  factor  in  the  final  value  of  the  product,  they  are  not  dependent  for 
their  successful  operation  upon  excessively  cheap  power,  and  we  find  them, 
therefore,  widely  distributed. 

Considering  next  the  refining  industries,  copper  refining  leads  in 
technical  importance.  This  may  be  better  realized  when  it  is  stated  that 
over  one  hundred  million  dollars'  worth  of  copper  is  ^electrically  refined 
in  the  United  States  alone  annually,  this  representing  85  per  cent  of  the 
world's  output  of  electrolytic  copper.  Not  only  is  the  purest  grade  of  copper 
for  electrical  work  thus  obtained,  but  there  are  also  worked  up  from  the 
anode  mud  millions  of  dollars  worth  of  gold  and  silver. 

Methods  similar  in  principle  to  those  employed  in  copper  refining 
are  used  for  refining  gold  and  silver,  while  on  a  smaller  scale,  antimony,  bis- 
muth, zinc,  tin,  platinum  and  recently  iron  may  likewise  be  refined.  The 
electrolytic  refining  of  lead  is  now  competing  with  the  older  methods,  thanks 
to  a  process  worked  out  by  Mr.  A.  G.  Betts  in  1902.  The  unique  feature  of 
this  invention  is  the  use  of  an  acid  solution  of  lead  fluorsilicate  as  an  elec- 
trolyte. Excellent  deposits  are  said  to  be  obtained  from  this  solution  if  a 
little  gelatine  or  glue  is  added  to  the  bath.  The  process  is  in  successful 
operation  on  a  large  scale  at  Trail,  Canada ;  Grasselli,  Indiana,  and  New- 
castle on  Tyne. 

Of  the  remaining  industrial  processes  based  upon  the  electrolysis  of 
aqueous  solutions  the  electrolytic  alkali  industry  should  be  especially  men- 
tioned as  upon  this  an  enormous  amount  of  scientific  and  technical  research 
has  been  expended.     Chemical  processes  for  making  caustic  soda,  soda- 
ash,  hypochlorites,  as  well  as  other  sodium  salts  from  common  salt  have 
been  long  established  on  a  large  scale.     In  Great  Britain  alone  it  is  esti- 
mated that  $50,000,000  are  invested  in  this  one  industry.     The  older  chem- 
ical methods  are,  however,  being  slowly  but  surely  replaced  by  electrolytic 
methods.    The  most  recent  advances  to  be  recorded  in  the  alkali  industry  are 
the  invention  of  the  Townsend  cell  in  1907  and  the  Whiting  cell  in  1910. 
The  former  is  a  diaphragm  cell,  the  distinctive  feature  of  which  is  the 
introduction  of  kerosene  in  the  cathode  compartment,  which  causes  the 
caustic  formed  there  to  separate  out  as  the  liquid  percolates  through  the 
cell.     This  cell  has  been  operated  at  Niagara  Falls  by  the  Development 
Funding  Company  since  1906  and  the  current  efficiency  under  ordinary 
conditions  is  said  to  be  as  high  as  97  per  cent.    The  Whiting  cell  is  a  modi- 
fied Castner  mercury  cathode  cell,  in  which  the  sodium  amalgam  formed 
at  the  cathode  is  intermittently  drawn  off  and  treated  with  water,  pure 
caustic  being  thus  obtained,  and  the  mercury  returned  to  the  cell.    This  cell 
is  now  in  operation  at  Rumford  Falls,  Maine. 


HABEY    M.    GOODWIN,   '90  307 

In  contrast  to  electrolysis  in  aqueous  solutions  at  ordinary  temperatures 
is  the  electrolysis  of  molten  salts,  at  temperatures  ranging  from  a  few  hun- 
dred to  a  thousand  degrees  centigrade,  the  object  being  to  effect  a  separa- 
tion of  the  metal  in  the  pure  state.  Two  distinctly  different  processes  have 
been  developed.  In  the  first,  the  electrolyte  is  a  pure  molten  compound 
such  as  sodium  hydrate,  which  is  itself  a  good  conductor;  in  the  second 
the  substance  to  be  electrolyzed  is  dissolved  in  a  molten  solvent.  The  first 
type  of  electrolysis  is  in  principle  the  famous  experiment  of  Sir  Humphrey 
Davy  which,  carried  out  on  a  commercial  scale,  forms  the  basis  of  the 
industries  for  making  metallic  sodium,  potassium,  calcium  and  magnesium. 
Of  these  metals,  sodium  is  at  present  the  most  extensively  produced,  some 
2000  tons  being  made  in  the  United  States  annually.  In  the  Castner 
process  used  by  the  Electrochemical  Company  at  Niagara  Falls  the  elec- 
trolyte is  fused  sodium  hydrate.  Other  processes  have  been  invented 
(notably  that  of  Ashcroft  making  use  of  fused  sodium  chloride)  but  few 
data  are  available  regarding  their  commercial  efficiency.  Sodium  is  exten- 
sively used  in  the  manufacture  of  sodium  cyanide  and  peroxide  and  as  a 
drying  agent  for  transformer  oil.  It  has  also  been  suggested  to  use  it  in 
iron  pipes  for  electrical  transmission  lines,  since  on  account  of  its  very  low 
specific  gravity  (1/9  that  of  copper)  its  conductivity,  weight  for  weight, 
between  two  points,  is  three  times  as  great  as  that  of  copper. 

The  second  type  of  fusion  electrolysis  forms  the  basis  of  the  aluminum 
industry.  This  metal  of  all  others  owes  its  commercial  importance  to 
electrochemistry.  Although  one  of  the  commonest  and  most  widely  distrib- 
uted of  the  elements,  it  remained  a  costly  and  little  used  metal  until 
1886  when  C.  M.  Hall  invented  a  process  by  which  it  could  be  readily  and 
cheaply  electrolyzed  from  its  oxide  when  dissolved  in  a  double  fluoride  of 
aluminum  and  the  fluoride  of  some  other  metal  such  as  sodium  or  potassium. 
As  at  present  carried  out  on  a  collossal  scale,  fused  cryolite  is  used  as  the 
solvent  (itself  a  poor  conductor)  and  aluminum  oxide  obtained  from  bauxite 
the  dissolved  electrolyte.  The  commercial  success  of  the  process  was  as- 
sured by  incorporating  the  brilliant  idea  of  Bradley  of  maintaining  the 
electrolyte  in  the  molten  state  at  about  900  degrees  C.  by  the  heating  effect 
of  the  electrolyzing  current.  Although  both  of  the  basic  patents  have  now 
expired  practically  all  of  the  aluminum  in  this  country  is  produced  by 
the  Aluminum  Company  of  America,  which  operates  plants  at  Niagara  Falls, 
Massena,  N".  Y.,  and  Schawinegan  Falls,  Canada.  These  three  plants  utilize 
together  75,000  H.P.,  while  the  total  power  consumed  by  the  six  companies 
producing  aluminum  in  Europe  is  about  97,500  H.P.  In  1907,  a  banner 
year  in  the  production  of  aluminum,  the  total  production  was  estimated  at 


308      ELECTBOCHEMISTEY  AND  ITS  INDUSTRIAL  DEVELOPMENT 

71,600,000  pounds,  of  which  26,000,000  were  produced  in  the  United  States 
and  Canada.  The  uses  to  which  the  metal  is  put  are  continually  increasing. 
It  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  copper  in  transmission  lines,  the  three  longest 
transmission  lines  in  the  United  States  being  constructed  of  aluminum;  in 
the  manufacture  of  thermite,  in  the  steel  industry,  and  for  numerous 
utensils,  while  its  use  as  a  constituent  of  alloys  has  probably  only  just  begun. 

The  second  group  of  electrochemical  industries  is  classed  as  electro- 
thermal. It  may  properly  be  asked  how  it  is  possible  for  electricity  to  com- 
pete with  coal,  coke,  oil  or  gas  if  the  electrical  energy  plays  no  other  part  in 
the  process  than  that  of  producing  heat.  The  answer  is  to  be  found  in  the 
facts,  first,  that  a  number  of  the  desired  reactions  can  take  place  only  at  tem- 
peratures attainable  by  electrical  means,  and  second,  that  heat  generated 
electrically  can  be  localized  at  the  exact  point  where  it  is  to  be  most  effective, 
that  is,  within  the  electric  furnace  and  in  immediate  contact  with  the  react- 
ing substances.  A  large  percentage  of  the  total  heat  developed  is  thus 
effective  in  producing  high  temperatures,  whereas  in  most  fuel  furnaces  the 
greater  part  is  dissipated  by  conduction  and  radiation  and  in  heating  super- 
fluous gases  as  nitrogen.  A  third  advantage  peculiar  to  electric  heating  is 
that  no  foreign  substances  (products  of  combustion)  are  brought  into  con- 
tact with  the  heated  charge ;  this  is  of  great  importance  in  certain  refining 
processes.  These  advantages,  coupled  with  the  further  fact  that  the  current 
can  be  regulated  at  will  by  the  opening  or  closing  of  a  switch,  make  it 
possible  for  electric  heating  not  only  to  compete  with,  but  in  some  cases 
to  entirely  supersede  the  older  methods  of  heating  by  combustion.  As 
heat  may  be  generated  equally  well  by  direct  or  alternating  current,  the 
advantages  peculiar  to  the  latter  in  regard  to  transmission,  and  voltage  reg- 
ulation, have  caused  it  to  be  largely  used  for  electric  furnace  work.  The 
various  types  of  electric  furnace  now  in  operation  may  be  classified  accord- 
ing to  the  method  by  which  heat  is  generated  in  them. 

First,  resistance  furnaces  in  which  (a),  the  charge  itself  is  more  or 

•  less  conducting  and  is  heated  to  the  desired  temperature  by  the  passage  of 

the  current  through  it,  or  (b)  the  charge  is  non-conducting  and  is  heated 

by  proximity  to  a  conducting  core  or  resistor  through  which  the  current 

passes. 

Second,  arc  furnaces  in  which  the  heat  is  developed  by  a  powerful 
electric  arc  around  which  the  charge  to  be  heated  is  placed,  or  in  the  case 
of  gaseous  reactions,  into  which  the  gases  themselves  are  forced. 

Third,  induction  furnaces  in  which  the  heat  is  produced  by  a  current 
induced  in  the  charge  itself  which  must  be  a  conductor  of  low  resistance. 


HABBY   M.    GOODWIN,   '90  309 

The  first  and  second  and  first  and  third  methods  are  also  used  in  com- 
bination. 

The  principal  electrothermal  products  representing  industries  which 
have  sprung  into  existence  since  the  advent  of  electric  furnaces  may  be  sum- 
marized as  follows : 

Carbides:  calcium  carbide,  titanium  carbide,  silicon  carbide  (carbo- 
rundum) ;  artificial  abrasives:  carborundum,  alundum;  silicon  and  boron; 
artificial  graphite;  carbon  bisulphide  and  phosphorus;  calcium  acetamide 
and  its  derivatives;  artificial  nitrates;  ferro  alloys;  metals  reduced  from 
ores;  refined  iron  and  steel. 

The  majority  of  these  industries  are  concerned  with  the  manufacture 
of  substances  formerly  unknown  or  produced  with  such  difficulty  and  at 
such  cost  as  to  render  them  chemical  curiosities.  Others,  notably  those  for 
the  reduction  of  ores  and  refining  of  steel,  and  for  the  manufacture  of  car- 
bon bisulphide  and  phosphorus,  illustrate  the  manner  in  which  electro- 
chemical methods  are  encroaching  on  long  and  well  established  chemical 
and  metallurgical  processes. 

[The  essential  features  of  the  above  processes  were  then  outlined  by  the 
speaker  and  the  role  which  each  is  playing  in  modern  industry  pointed  out.] 

Regarding  calcium  carbide  it  may  be  stated  that  since  its  discovery 
in  1891,  the  industry  has  developed  very  rapidly,  not  only  in  this  country 
but  throughout  Europe,  for  whenever  fresh  lime  and  carbon  are  available, 
together  with  a  supply  of  reasonably  cheap  electrical  energy,  carbide  may 
be  easily  produced.  The  Union  Carbide  Company  practically  controls 
the  output  of  carbide  in  America.  Its  plant  at  Niagara  Falls  utilizes 
15,000  H.P.;  at  Sault  Ste.  Marie  10,000  H.P.,  while  a  third  factory  at 
Duluth  will  take  10,000  H.P.  The  first  use  made  of  calcium  carbide  as 
the  source  of  acetylene  is  well  known  to  everyone.  The  over-production  of 
carbide  about  ten  years  ago  led  to  an  endeavor  to  create  a  wider  market  for 
the  product  which  has  resulted  in  important  discoveries  in  so  many  direc- 
tions that  it  would  be  rash  to  predict  the  sequel.  Thus  the  carbide  itself 
is  now  used  as  the  basis  of  the  manufacture  of  calcium  cyanimide,  a  valuable 
artificial  fertilizer,  and  cyanides,  while  acetylene  is  destined  to  form  the 
starting  point  for  the  manufacture  of  other  important  organic  compounds. 
Acetylene  has  also  recently  found  a  new  use  in  the  acetylene  blowpipe  by 
means  of  which  temperatures  are  produced  sufficient  to  weld  the  hardest 
steel. 

Of  the  other  possible  carbides  or  compounds  formed  in  the  electric 
furnace  by  the  union  of  a  metal  with  carbon,  many  have  now  been  made  and 
their  properties  investigated.  Several  have  been  found  to  possess  proper- 


310       ELECTROCHEMISTRY  AND  ITS  INDUSTRIAL  DEVELOPMENT 

ties  so  remarkable  as  to  at  once  create  an  active  demand  for  them.  Thus  of 
great  technical  importance  is  the  carbide  formed  by  the  union  of  silicon  and 
carbon  to  which  the  commercial  name  carborundum  has  been  given,  as  it  was 
originally  thought  to  be  a  compound  of  carbon  and  corundum.  It  is  one 
of  the  most  effective  abrasives  known.  If  finely  powdered  it  will  polish 
diamond.  Although  the  compound  was  undoubtedly  made  by  Depretz  as 
early  as  1849  and  later  by  Marsden  in  1880,  and  Carlos  in  1886,  the  present 
industry  is  due  entirely  to  the  work  of  Acheson  who  in  1890  discovered  the 
crystallized  carbide  of  silicon  while  engaged  in  an  attempt  to  crystallize 
carbon.  The  manner  of  the  discovery  of  this  important  substance  is  typical 
of  what  may  be  expected  at  any  time  in  chemical  research  at  high  temper- 
tures.  Our  present  knowledge  of  the  way  in  which  substances  react  in  the 
electric  furnace  is  so  meagre  that  experimental  investigation  alone  can 
determine  the  outcome  in  any  given  case.  Thus  Professor  Tucker  finds  that 
carborundum  forms  at  about  1950°  and  decomposes  again  into  silicon  and 
graphite  at  2220°,  which  illustrates  the  limited  range  of  temperature 
between  which  certain  electric  furnace  products  can  be  isolated.  The  total 
output  of  carborundum  in  this  country  is  controlled  by  the  Carborundum 
Company  at  Niagara  Falls,  which  has  a  plant  utilizing  5000  H.P.  The 
furnaces  are  of  1000  and  2000  H.P.  capacity.  It  is  also  made  in  France, 
Germany  and  Austria.  In  addition  to  its  use  as  an  abrasive,  carborundum 
may  be  used  as  a  substitute  for  ferro-silicon  in  steel  refining  and  as  a 
detector  in  wireless  telegraphy.  There  is  also  a  field  for  it  in  the  form  of 
brick  and  other  refractory  articles. 

Closely  related  to  carborundum  is  another  substance  which  is  formed  in 
carborundum  furnaces  just  outside  the  layer  of  carborundum  itself  and 
called  by  Acheson  siloxicon.  Analysis  shows  it  to  contain  silicon,  carbon 
and  oxygen  in  varying  amounts.  It  has  properties  which  make  it  valuable 
for  furnace  linings,  crucibles,  etc.,  as  it  is  not  acted  upon  by  slags  or  molten 
metals.  This  too  is  one  of  the  Niagara  products. 

One  other  valuable  carbide  should  be  mentioned,  namely,  that  of 
titanium.  This  has  been  found  to  possess  the  unique  property  of  doubling 
the  efficiency  of  the  light  given  out  by  an  electric  arc,  if  used  as  the  material 
between  which  the  arc  is  struck.  Its  importance  in  artificial  illumination 
may  easily  be  realized. 

Another  electric  furnace  product  used  as  an  abrasive  is  alundum  or 
fused  aluminum  oxide.  This  oxide  occurs  in  nature  as  corundum,  which  is 
extensively  mined  on  account  of  its  hardness.  The  artificial  product  is 
less  brittle,  but  not  quite  as  hard  as  corundum.  As  compared  with  car- 
borundum, the  latter  is  said  to  be  superior  for  use  on  cast  iron,  brass,  marble, 


HAEEY    M.    GOODWIN,   '90  311 

etc.,  where  sharpness  rather  than  hardness  are  the  qualities  desired.  For 
hardened  steel  and  for  final  polishing,  alundum  is  superior,  as,  being  less 
brittle,  a  greater  pressure  may  be  employed.  Alundum  is  manufactured 
at  Niagara  Falls  by  the  Norton  Emery  Wheel  Company  of  Worcester,  Mass. 
Between  600  and  700  H.P.  are  used  in  the  furnaces  and  in  1908  the  pro- 
duction already  exceeded  3,000,000  pounds. 

Metallic  silicon  itself  is  also  produced  on  a  large  scale  by  the  Carbo- 
rundum Company  operating  under  T.  J.  Tone's  patents.  Boron,  too,  has 
succumbed  to  the  electric  arc,  thanks  to  the  work  of  Dr.  Weintraub  of  the 
General  Electric  Co.  at  Lynn. 

In  regard  to  Mr.  Acheson's  artificial  graphite,  it  was  stated  that  this 
is  formed  by  subjecting  coke  or  anthracite  coal  to  an  exceedingly  high 
temperature  produced  by  passing  an  electric  current  through  the  charge 
itself.  It  was  formerly  believed  from  the  work  of  Depretz  that  pure  carbon 
could  be  converted  into  graphite  by  heating  in  an  electric  furnace,  but  the 
experiments  of  Acheson  have  shown  that  graphite  is  probably  formed  only 
after  the  carbon  has  passed  through  the  intermediate  state  of  a  carbide, 
which,  in  the  case  of  calcium  carbide,  is  decomposed  into  graphite  and 
metallic  vapor  if  heated  much  over  about  2200°  C.  The  carbide  may  result 
from  the  presence  of  impurities,  such  as  silica  or  metallic  oxides,  present  in 
the  carbon.  For  this  reason  in  building  up  a  furnace,  the  specimens  of 
carbon  to  be  graphitized  are  imbedded  in  powdered  carbon,  and  a  small 
quantity  of  iron  oxide  is  added,  which  acts  as  a  catalyzer  for  the  whole  mass, 
i.e.,  it  first  forms  iron  carbide  as  the  temperature  at  the  center  is  raised,  and 
this  in  turn  breaks  down  at  higher  temperatures  into  graphite  and  iron 
vapor.  The  latter  diffuses  outward  through  the  mass,  converting  it  in  turn 
first  into  carbide  and  then  graphite.  The  graphite  products  now  on  the 
market  consist  of  electrodes  of  all  shapes  and  sizes,  crucibles,  blocks,  etc., 
all  of  which  have  been  a  boon  to  the  electrolytic  industries.  A  colloidal 
form  of  graphite  valuable  for  lubricating  purposes  has  also  been  discovered 
by  Acheson.  These  products  are  made  at  the  International  Acheson 
Graphite  Company  at  Niagara  Falls,  where  4000  H.P.  are  required  to  run 
the  twenty- two  furnaces  installed.  In  1909  nearly  35,000  tons  of  graphite 
were  produced,  representing  a  value  of  about  half  a  million  dollars. 

Among  the  various  conservation  problems  so  much  discussed  during  the 
last  few  years  has  been  that  of  conserving  the  productive  efficiency  of  the 
soil.  It  is  now  well  recognized  that  intensive  cultivation  depends  upon 
returning  to  the  soil  nitrogen  in  some  form  in  which  it  may  be  assimilated 
by  plant  life.  That  an  unlimited  supply  of  the  raw  material  is  everywhere 
available  is  evident,  for  it  is  estimated  that  the  amount  of  nitrogen  in  the 


312      ELECTROCHEMISTRY  AND  ITS  INDUSTRIAL  DEVELOPMENT 

atmosphere  over  one  square  mile  of  the  earth's  surface  is  more  than  equiva- 
lent to  all  of  the  combined  nitrogen  in  the  Chili  deposits.  This  problem 
has  already  been  solved  by  electrochemistry  in  two  different  ways,  and  mil- 
lions qf  dollars  are  now  invested  in  "nitrogen  fixation"  propositions. 

[TJie  author  here  entered  into  a  somewhat  detailed  discussion  of  this 
very  important  and  promising  field  of  electrochemical  development.]  It  is 
clear  that  the  one  essential  condition  for  the  success  of  this  industry  is  cheap 
electrical  power ;  given  this  no  country  need  hereafter  be  in  fear  of  a  nitrate 
famine.  As  to  the  relative  efficiency  of  the  cyanimide  and  arc  fixation 
processes,  the  only  figures  which  are  available  at  present  indicate  that  the 
former  process  yields  51.6  grams  of  nitrogen,  while  the  latter  produces  only 
12.7  grams  per  kilowatt-hour.  The  cyanimide  process,  therefore,  "  fixes  " 
four  times  as  much  nitrogen  as  the  arc  process  for  the  same  expenditure  of 
power. 

A  resume  of  the  progress  in  applied  electrochemistry  would  not  be 
complete  were  not  special  mention  made  of  the  very  recent  triumphant  en- 
trance of  electrothermal  methods  into  the  iron  and  steel  industry.  In  this 
highly  developed  art  it  was  supposed  by  many  that  electric  heating  could 
have  no  place  on  account  of  its  high  cost,  but  the  last  few  years  has  witnessed 
a  complete  reversal  of  this  opinion.  There  are  two  quite  distinct  problems 
arising  in  the  electrometallurgy  of  iron  and  steel  to  the  solution  of  which 
electrometallugists  are  directing  their  energies;  the  first  is  the  electro- 
thermic  reduction  of  ores,  and  the  second  the  refining  of  iron  already 
reduced  by  other  means,  and  its  conversion  into  high  grade  steel.  Re- 
garding the  first  of  these  problems  it  may  be  said  at  once  that,  although 
the  electrothermic  reduction  of  ores  has  been  demonstrated  to  be  not  only 
a  possible  but  a  commercially  practicable  proposition,  it  is  not  as  yet  prac- 
ticed on  any  great  scale.  It  seems  probable  that  this  method  of  reduction 
must  be  restricted  to  localities  remote  from  cheap  fuel  and  near  very  cheap 
electric  power.  These,  however,  are  exactly  the  conditions  which  obtain 
in  certain  parts  of  California,  Canada  and  Sweden.  The  Canadian  gov- 
ernment, recognizing  the  possibilities  in  the  development  of  the  many  nat- 
ural resources  of  the  country,  appointed  in  1903  a  commission  in  charge  of 
Dr.  Haanel  to  make  a  careful  study  of  this  subject.  The  reports  of  this 
commission  contain  the  most  valuable  and  interesting  information  regarding 
the  present  status  of  the  electrothermic  reduction  of  iron  ores  which  we  pos- 
sess. That  important  developments  are  to  be  expected  in  the  near  future 
may  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  as  a  result  of  Dr.  HaanePs  report  three 
large  furnaces  are  being  erected  in  Canada,  at  Welland  and  Sault  Ste. 
Marie.  The  Noble  Electric  Steel  Company,  of  Shasta  County,  California, 


HAKftY   M.    GOODWIN,   '90  313 

has  also  operated  a  commercial  furnace  with  such  success  that  the  company 
expects  to  install  four  or  five  others  in  the  near  future.  In  southern  France 
and  Italy  the  reduction  of  iron  ore  has  also  been  effected  in  furnaces  of 
the  Keller  and  Stassano  designs.  Thus  the  corner  stone  of  this  industry  has 
already  been  laid,  and  we  await  further  developments  with  confidence. 

The  electrothermic  refining  of  iron  and  production  of  high  grade  steel 
has  already  passed  the  experimental  stage  and  obtained  a  firm  footing  in  the 
steel  industry.  In  fact  the  days  of  crucible  steel  are  numbered,  as  electric 
steel  is  driving  it  out  of  the  market,  being  not  only  cheaper,  but  also  of 
better  quality.  Numerous  furnaces  have  been  invented  for  carrying  out  the 
process  of  refining  pig  iron,  all  of  which  consists  in  raising  the  molten  metal 
to  any  desired  temperature  in  contact  with  whatever  slag  is  figured  to  give 
the  desired  product.  Heating  is  produced  by  an  arc,  by  induction,  or  in 
certain  special  cases  by  a  combination  of  these  methods  with  resistance  heat- 
ing. The  complete  removal  of  phosphorus  and  sulphur  as  well  as  the 
introduction  of  any  desired  ingredient,  such  as  silicon,  manganese,  tungsten, 
molybdenum,  nickel  and  vanadium,  are  effected  with  perfect  ease  and  cer- 
tainty in  these  furnaces.  The  superior  qualities  of  special  steels  resulting 
from  the  introduction  of  small  percentages  of  these  metals  has  created  such 
a  demand  for  ferro-alloys  that  the  production  of  these  in  itself  constitutes  a 
new  electrothermic  industry.  Ferro-alloys  rich  in  the  above  named  metals 
are  now  produced  in  large  quantities  by  the  Goldschmidt  thermite  process 
and  in  various  electric  furnaces,  the  latter  methods  being  used  particularly 
in  France. 

Some  idea  may  be  obtained  of  the  extraordinary  rapidity  with  which 
electrothermic  methods  have  been  perfected  and  applied  in  the  steel  industry 
from  the  fact  that  when  the  first  report  of  the  Canadian  commission  was 
published  in  1904,  only  four  small  electric  furnaces  were  in  operation  in 
Europe.  Last  year,  1910,  only  six  years  later,  there  were  sixty-seven  in 
operation,  eleven  not  working,  and  thirty-six  in  course  of  construction.  In 
this  country  two  fifteen-ton  Heroult  steel  furnaces  are  already  in  opera- 
tion, one  at  South  Chicago  (Illinois  Steel  Company),  and  one  at  Worcester, 
Mass.  (American  Steel  and  Wire  Company).  If  the  next  six  years  wit- 
ness a  corresponding  development,  and  there  is  no  reason  to  anticipate 
otherwise,  the  electrometallurgy  of  steel  will  have  become  an  industry  of 
tremendous  magnitude. 

The  problem  of  converting  directly  into  electrical  energy  the  energy  set 
free  by  chemical  reactions  has  been  completely  solved  in  a  number  of  cases. 
The  practical  solution  of  the  problem  for  the  most  important  technical  reac- 
tion which  arises,  namely,  that  of  the  combustion  of  carbon  to  carbon 


314       ELECTROCHEMISTRY  AND  ITS  INDUSTRIAL  DEVELOPMENT 

dioxide,  still  remains,  however,  an  achievement  of  the  future.  When  it  is 
remembered  that  our  chief  source  of  electrical  energy,  hydro-electric  power 
excepted,  comes  from  the  combustion  of  fuel  under  the  boiler  of  an  engine 
coupled  to  a  dynamo  and  that  about  90  per  cent  of  this  energy  is  lost  so  far 
as  electrical  energy  is  concerned,  the  significance  of  the  discovery  of  a 
primary  carbon  generator  by  which  electrical  energy  and  not  heat  would 
result  directly  from  the  consumption  of  carbon,  may  be  realized.  The 
solution  of  this  problem  would  mean  an  industrial  revolution.  Many  scien- 
tists and  inventors  have  put  forth  their  best  efforts  in  the  .attempt  to  solve 
this  problem,  but  up  to  the  present  time  it  must  be  frankly  admitted  their 
endeavors  have  met  with  little  or  no  practical  success.  From  a  theoretical 
point  of  view,  however,  there  seems  to  be  no  intrinsic  reason  why  a  solution 
should  not  be  found.  The  problem  remains  to-day  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant in  the  whole  field  of  electrochemistry. 


MAIL    HANDLING    MACHINEKY    AT    THE    PENNSYLVANIA 

EAILEOAD  TEEMINAL  AND  NEW  UNITED  STATES 

POST  OFFICE  AT  NEW  YOEK  CITY. 

By  JULIAN  E.  WOODWELL,  '96, 
Consulting  Engineer,  New  York. 

LOCATION  AND  GENERAL  ARRANGEMENT  OF  NEW  TERMINAL  POSTAL 

FACILITIES. 

The  Pennsylvania  railroad  terminal  is  located  between  Seventh  and 
Eighth  Avenues  and  occupies  an  area  between  Thirty-first  and  Thirty-third 
Streets,  434  feet  wide  (north  and  south),  and  800  feet  long  (east  and 
west).  Fig  1. 


1 

W 

i 

I 

W 

W.  33rd    St.                                                   St. 

.  33rd  St. 

Open 
Space 

K.fi. 

Tracks 
Below 

g 

•4 

| 

1 

Open  Space 
E.K.  Tracks  Below 

1 
» 

1 
1 

Post  Office 

5  nurture 
.    .         j 

> 
5 

M 
» 

Pennsylvania  Railroad 
Station 

32nd  St. 

~ 

W.  3lst    St. 

St. 

31st  St. 

'    ' 

FIG.  1.     Site  of  the  new  Post  Office,  west  of  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  Station. 

The  new  post  office  building  being  erected  by  the  government  will  be 
completed  in  1913  and  occupies  a  site  west  of  the  Pennsylvania  station 
fronting  about  375  feet  on  Eighth  Avenue  and  extending  from  Thirty- 
first  to  Thirty-third  Streets,  and  having  a  depth  of  about  335  feet  or  nearly 
half  way  from  Eighth  to  Ninth  Avenues. 

Both  the  Pennsylvania  station  and  the  new  government  post  office 
building  span  the  tracks  of  the  Pennsylvania  railroad  fifty  feet  below  the 

315 


316         MAIL   HANDLING   MACHINERY   IN   NEW   YOEK   CITY 

street  level,  and  the  principal  facilities  for  handling  the  mails  are  located 
on  the  westerly  side  of  the  post  office  building  at  the  most  distant  point 
from  the  railroad  station. 

Entering  from  a  private  street  that  runs  along  the  west  side  of  the 
building,  connecting  Thirty-first  and  Thirty-third  Streets,  we  come  to  an 
inner  covered  driveway  300  feet  long  and  32  feet  wide  fronting  a  mailing 
platform  312  feet  long  and  35  feet  wide  for  loading  and  unloading  mail 
wagons.  This  mailing  platform  is  located  about  four  feet  above  the  street 
level  and  is  at  the  first  floor  level  of  the  post  office.  The  basement  of  the 
post  office  underlies  the  mailing  platform  and  the  private  street,  and  affords 
facilities  for  rehandling  mail  at  this  lower  level. 

The  working  zone  for  handling  mail  in  the  post  office  building  there- 
fore comprises  two  narrow  spaces  at  the  first  floor  and  basement  levels  ex- 
tending north  and  south,  and  spanning  the  railroad  tracks  below  reserved 
for  the  postal  cars.  It  was  in  this  limited  space  that  the  mail  handling 
equipment  had  to  be  installed. 

The  railway  mail  service,  coincident  with  the  operation  of  the  Penn- 
sylvania railroad  and  train  service,  began  at  the  new  terminal  on  Nov. 
27,  1910.  To  provide  for  this  service,  the  westerly  end  of  the  post  office 
building  had  been  finished  in  a  temporary  manner,  housing  the  mailing 
platform  and  covered  driveway  and  enclosing  a  space  on  the  basement  level, 
providing  for  a  trucking  plaza,  offices  for  officials  and  clerks,  and  ample 
space  for  a  complete  railway  mail  post  office  equipment  and  a  large  force  of 
postal  employees.  Four  train  platforms  and  six  tracks,  under  the  westerly 
end  of  the  post  office  building,  providing  for  a  maximum  of  26  mail  cars 
at  one  time,  were  set  apart  wholly  or  partly  for  the  railway  mail  service. 
AH  four  train  platforms  will  handle  mail  departing  from  the  station,  and 
the  southerly  platform  was  specially  arranged  for  receiving  the  incoming 
mail  from  the  south  and  west.  The  two  middle  platforms,  having  no  con- 
nection with  the  passenger  platforms  of  the  terminal,  are  called  island 
platforms,  and  are  devoted  exclusively  to  the  postal  service.  These  plat- 
forms extend  to  the  west  beyond  the  limits  of  the  post  office  building.  The 
north  and  south  platforms  extend  to  the  east  under  the  post  office  building 
and  are  a  continuation  of  the  passenger  platforms  of  the  terminal.  Aside 
from  the  heavy  incoming  and  outgoing  mails  handled  on  these  six  tracks, 
there  are  other  mails,  light  but  frequent,  for  despatch  by  trains  on  other 
tracks. 

Certain  facilities  of  a  character  customary  in  large  modern  railroad 
stations,  had  been  provided.  These  mails  arc  sent  down  to  the  trucking 
subway,  twelve  feet  wide,  running  underneath  the  tracks  and  extending 


JULIAN    E.    WOODWELL,   '96  317 

eastward  under  the  tracks  nearly  1,000  feet  and  provided  with  transverse 
branches  extending  north  and  south  and  connected  with  the  various  plat- 
forms by  means  of  elevators.  To  facilitate  the  rapid  transfer  of  mail  from 
point  to  point  on  the  various  levels  and  from  one  level  to  another  and 
through  the  elaborate  system  of  subways,  four  plunger  elevators  have  been 
provided,  one  for  each  of  the  four  train  platforms,  and  a  large  number  of 
electric  motor  trucks  furnished,  each  having  a  carrying  capacity  of  4,000 
pounds.  These  elevators  are  designed  with  sufficient  size  and  capacity  to 
raise  and  lower  the  loaded  trucks  to  and  from  the  different  levels. 

These  facilities,  however,  involving  manual  handling  for  the  most 
part,  were  wholly  inadequate  to  provide  for%  the  prompt  handling  and 
despatch  of  the  enormous  quantities  of  mail  which  arrive  and  depart  from 
this  station  daily,  on  trains  which  move  quickly  in  and  out  of  a  restricted 
and  congested  underground  trackage  network. 

The  task  of  designing  special  machinery  for  mail  handling,  departing 
from  the  conventional  construction  of  conveying  machinery,  was  rendered 
the  more  difficult  by  reason  of  the  fixed  conditions  applying  to  the  layout 
of  tracks,  track  platforms  and  structural  supports  of  the  post  office  and 
also  to  the  fixed  locations  of  the  mailing  platform,  trucking  space  and 
plunger  elevators,  all  of  which  had  been  established  prior  to  consideration 
of  the  introduction  of  special  machinery  for  handling  the  mails.  Further- 
more, as  the  original  scheme  was  planned  to  secure  the  utmost  economy  of 
space  in  the  arrangement  for  elevator  and  trucking  facilities  only,  it  became 
necessary  to  plan  and  dispose  the  mail  handling  machinery  so  that  it 
would  occupy  otherwise  unused  or  waste  space  without  encroachment  upon 
or  interference  with  any  or  all  of  the  facilities  previously  provided.  The 
location  of  the  machinery  and  position  of  loading  and  unloading  stations 
was  therefore  limited  to  areas  already  congested  by  motor  trucks  and 
elevator  entrances,  and  to  narrow  train  platforms  with  restricted  side  and 
overhead  train,  clearances  and  also  to  spaces  free  from  interference  with 
lines  of  sight  of  train  signals. 

Notwithstanding  the  physical  limitations  of  the  building  and  struc- 
tural work,  which  cramped  the  mail  handling  proposition  at  the  outset  and 
absolutely  prevented  the  installation  of  duplicate  or  reserve  apparatus, 
the  mail  handling  machinery  had  to  be  made  capable  of  constant  service, 
free  from  breakdown  or  interruption  which  would  delay  the  movements  of 
the  mails  or  trains,  and  also  made  free  from  liability  to  damage  the  contents 
of  the  mail  pouches  and  sacks. 

The  cost  of  the  entire  installation  was  assumed  by  the  railroad  com- 
pany, and  will  total  nearly  $300,000. 


318          MAIL    HANDLING    MACHINERY    IN    NEW    YORK    CITY 

Two  classes  of  machinery  are  provided,  one  for  handling  the  outgoing 
and  one  for  handling  the  incoming  mail. 

MACHINERY  FOR  HANDLING  OUTGOING  MAIL. 

The  mail  to  be  despatched  on  departing  mail  trains  arrives  at  the 
station  in  wagons,  which  are  unloaded  at  the  mailing  platform.  Here  the 
mail  pouches  are  sorted,  some  of  them  being  sent  to  the  basement  level 
through  spiral  chutes,  where  they  are  opened  and  the  contents  redistributed 
and  finally  repouched;  the  reassembled  pouches,  together  with  the  un- 
opened pouches,  are  then  fed  into  spiral  chutes  which  deliver  them  to  con- 
veyor belts  located  over  the  track  platforms  and  above  the  mail  cars,  and 
also  to  the  trucking  subways.  The  belts  are  provided  with  automatic  trip- 
pers or  unloading  mechanisms,  which  may  be  set  opposite  the  door  of  any 
of  the  cars  of  the  mail  train,  thus  automatically  unloading  and  transferring 
the  mail  through  parabolic  slides  directly  into  any  one  of  the  mail  cars  for 
which  the  apparatus  has  been  set.  Two  belt  conveyors  are  provided  over 
each  of  the  four  mail  track  platforms,  one  belt  extending  east  and  one 
west  of  the  connecting  spiral  chutes  which  are  constructed  with  separate 
compartments,  one  for  each  belt.  By  this  means  two  mail  cars  at  each  of 
the  four  track  platforms  may  be  loaded  simultaneously  by  machinery. 

Structural  Features: 

The  supports  for  overhead  belt  conveyors,  driving  motors,  etc.,  are 
hung  on  the  overhead  framing  of  the  post  office  building  above  the  limits  of 
train  clearances  and  so  disposed  as  to  avoid  interference  with  lines  of  sight 
of  train  signals.  Where  the  two  island  mail  train  platforms  extended  to 
the  west  beyond  the  limits  of  the  post  office  building,  it  was  necessary  to 
build  sheds  to  house  and  protect  the  overhead  conveyors.  These  sheds  are 
of  copper  kalameined  construction  with  glass  roofs  and  are  supported  on 
irregularly  spaced  single  lines  of  eccentrically  loaded  columns,  using  can- 
tilever construction  to  permit  the  longitudinal  travel  of  belt  trippers  or 
unloading  devices. 

Spiral  Chutes — Figs.  2  and  3 : 

One  of  the  salient  features  of  the  work  was  a  fourfold  system  of  spiral 
chutes.  As  will  be  made  clear  by  the  following  description,  this  system  was 
grouped  into  double,  triple  and  quadruple  chutes,  with  single  chute  com- 
partments designed  for  simultaneous  loading  at  the  different  levels  with- 
out interference. 

As  the  result  of  the  space  limitations  and  the  prearranged  structural 


JULIAN    E.    WOOD  WELL,    '96 


319 


conditions  already  referred  to,  and  the  necessary  inter-relation  of  the  work- 
ing areas  assigned  for  the  receipt  and  handling  of  the  mails,  a  complexity 
of  requirements  arose  in  the  design  of  the  spiral  chutes.  For  example,  it 
was  impracticable  to  make  the  spiral  chutes  vertical  for  the  entire  length, 
and  numerous  deviations  and  offsets  of  straight  and  curved  slides  were  re- 
quired. The  vertical  length  of  the  chutes  was  also  limited  by  lack  of  head 
room,  and  the  inlets  and  delivery  points  of  the  chutes  were  restricted  not 
only  in  height  but  in  arrangement  and  precise  location. 

In  meeting  the  complex  conditions,  it  was  necessary  to  depart  widely 
from  conventional  design  and  to  resort  to  an  unsymmetrical  arrangement  of 


Bucket  Lift  Loading  8 1 a. 


33rd  St. 


,  Tunnel*  4 

Section  at  Sta.  177.  Lboking  East 
N 

Section  at  Sta.  178.  Looking  East    !— i 
FIG.  2 

the  entrances  to  the  triple  and  quadruple  chutes,  all  three  entrances  of  the 
triple  chute  being  placed  on  one  side  and  all  four  entrances  of  the  quadruple 
chute  being  placed  on  two  sides  of  the  chute  housing.  The  fixed  conditions 
made  it  necessary  to  vary  the  pitch  of  the  spiral  slides  at  different  points 
in  the  same  chute  and  to  depend  in  some  cases  for  positive  action  upon 
acquired  momentum  of  the  mail  pouches  developed  in  parts  of  the  chute 
in  which  it  was  possible  to  use  a  more  favorable  pitch.  In  other  cases  the 
latitude  in  design  was  so  small  that  the  critical  angle  at  which  a  mail  bag 
will  slide  on  a  polished  metal  plate  is  exceeded  by  only  two  or  three  degrees. 
It  was  also  necessary  to  resort  to  reverse  curves  and  to  change  the  direction 
of  motion  of  the  bag  by  baffle  plates. 

The  solution  of  this  problem  was  rendered  still  more  difficult  by  reason 
of  the  wide  variation  of  loads,  ranging  from  that  of  the  small  and  practical- 


320          MAIL    HANDLING    MACHINERY    IN    NEW    YOEK    CITY 

ly  empty  canvas  bag  to  a  full  bag  of  periodicals  weighing  as  much  as 
300  Ibs.  The  spiral  curves  are  so  designed  that  the  speed  and  certainty  of 
delivery  of  bags  of  the  two  extremes  in  weight  and  size  is  regulated  or  con- 
trolled by  the  action  of  centrifugal  force. 

In  addition  to  the  spiral  chutes  a  number  of  other  direct  chutes  were 
installed,  and  these  were  constructed  with  curves  of  parabolic  form,  secur- 
ing a  maximum  speed  of  descent,  yet  bringing  the  bags  to  rest  at  the  bottom 
without  shock. 

Belt  Conveyors — Fig.  3  : 

As  already  outlined,  the  spiral  chutes  feed  all  four  of  the  postal 
track  platforms  and  deliver  the  mail  bags  as  they  emerge  from  the  slides 
at  their  lower  end,  directly  to  motor  operated  horizontal  belt  conveyors 
located  above  and  parallel  with  the  four  track  platforms,  thus  serving  all 


FIG.  3 


postal  cars  located  on  the  six  tracks  reserved  for  the  postal  service.  More- 
over, as  the  spiral  chutes  are  located  at  intermediate  points  over  the  train 
platforms,  the  belt  conveyors  are  divided  into  two  sections,  one  belt  run- 
ning east  and  one  belt  west  from  the  chutes,  which  are  divided  into  two 
separate  compartments,  one  serving  each  section  of  the  conveyor. 

The  motors  for  the  eight  overhead  belt  conveyors  for  outgoing  mail 
are  of  the  semi-enclosed  type,  designed  for  650  volts  direct  current  and 
arranged  to  secure  a  speed  control  of  20  per  cent  above  normal  speed  by 
shunt  field  control  and  a  decrease  of  20  per  cent  below  normal  by  armature 
resistance.  The  motors  are  capable  of  developing  the  following  rated  horse- 
powers when  operating  at  a  maximum  speed  of  20  per  cent  above  normal : 


JULIAN    E.    WOODWELL,   '96  321 

Track  platform  No.  4 :  West  belt,  73  feet  long,  5  horse-power  motor ; 
east  belt,  185  feet  long,  7%  horse-power  motor. 

Track  platform  No.  8 :  West  belt,  65  feet  long,  5  horse-power  motor ; 
east  belt,  195  feet  long,  7%  horse-power  motor. 

Track  platform  No.  13 :  West  belt,  192  feet  long  (two  belts  in  series) 
10  horse-power  motor;  east  belt,  60  feet  long,  5  horse-power  motor. 

Track  platform  No.  14:  West  belt,  192  feet  long  (two  belts  in  series) 
10  horse  power  motor;  east  belt,  60  feet  long,  5  horse  power  motor. 

The  motors  are  equipped  with  drum  type  non-reversible  compound 
controllers  having  no-voltage,  overload  and  push  button  release  features. 

The  individual  motor  drive  for  each  of  the  eight  belts  consists  of  two 
reductions  between  the  motor  and  the  conveyor  belt  driving  pulley.  The 
first  reduction  between  the  motor  and  the  countershaft  consists  of  a 
Reynolds  silent  chain,  and  the  second  reduction  between  countershaft  and 
driving  pulley  is  made  with  spur  gears.  The  entire  drive  is  rigidly  mounted 
upon  the  structural  members  supporting  the  conveyors.  The  bearings  of 
the  countershafts  and  the  driving  pulleys  are  of  the  self -aligning,  ring-oiling 
type  with  renewable  bronze  shells  and  cast  iron  pedestals.  The  spur  gears 
are  of  cast  steel  with  cut  teeth  of  extra  wide  face,  and  the  pinions  are 
forged  steel  cut  from  the  solid.  Beneath  each  motor  is  placed  an  oil  tight 
galvanized  iron  drip  pan  extending  under  the  entire  motor  and  bearings. 

A  hand  lever  operates  the  controller  for  bringing  each  motor  to  the 
desired  speed.  In  case  of  abnormal  load  on  the  motor  due  to  too  rapid 
starting,  or  to  the  clogging  of  the  driving  mechanism,  the  overload  release 
coil  will  cause  a  solenoid  switch  to  be  opened,  and  this  switch  will  not  close 
again  until  the  controller  lever  has  been  returned  to  the  "off"  position. 
Push-button  release  stations  are  located  along  the  gangway  of  the  conveyor 
structure  for  the  respective  belts  at  intervals  of  approximately  forty  feet. 
By  pressing  a  button  at  any  one  of  those  stations,  the  release  coil  becomes 
energized  and  causes  the  main-line  solenoid  switch  to  be  opened  in  the  same 
manner  as  for  the  overload  device.  In  event  of  failure  of  current  supply, 
the  no- voltage  release  feature  is  brought  into  action,  opening  the  main-line 
solenoid  switch,  which  protects  the  motor  from  inrush  of  current  should 
the  current  supply  be  restored  before  the  controller  handle  is  moved  to  the 
"  off  "  position. 

The  supports  for  the  belt  conveyors  consist  of  stringers  of  heavy  chan- 
nel and  I-beam  sections  forming  supports  for  the  rollers  and  idlers  which 
are  of  special  design,  employing  hollow  steel  tubing  and  the  highest  grade 
of  radial  ball  bearings  with  stationary  shafts.  Ball  bearings  were  selected 
not  only  to  reduce  the  friction,  but  to  prevent  the  possibility  of  dripping  of 


322          MAIL   HANDLING   MACHINERY   IN   NEW    YOBK   CITY 

oil  or  grease  upon  the  train  platforms.  The  rollers  with  ball  bearings  are 
readily  demountable  and  interchangeable  and  adjustable,  to  secure  the 
proper  alignment  of  the  belts.  The  belts  are  constructed  of  five-ply  heavy 
canvas  of  long  fiber  Sea  Island  cotton  impregnated  and  covered  with 
rubber  on  both  sides,  and  have  half-round  molded  edges.  The  clogging 
of  the  bags  by  the  catching  of  mail  pouch  strings  in  the  mechanism  was 
guarded  against  by  aprons,  skirt  boards  and  other  special  detail  devices. 

Two  of  the  train  platforms  are  curved  and  necessitated  the  installa- 
tion of  two  conveyor  belts  in  series,  with  a  special  transferring  device  which 
was  developed  as  an  adjunct  to  two  of  the  trippers. 

In  order  to  transfer  the  mail  from  the  overhead  belts  to  the  deflecting 
spouts  employed  to  deposit  the  mail  directly  into  the  cars,  belt  trippers  or 
unloaders  were  employed,  traveling  on  three  rails,  and  having  a  three-point 
mounting  to  compensate  for  inequalities  in  track  alignment.  The  space 
limitations  necessitated  an  entirely  new  design  of  the  conventional  type  of 
belt  tripper,  with  self-propelling  gearing,  clutches,  and  control  levers  and 
pedals,  including  a  rail  clamping  device  to  insure  stability  during  the  opera- 
tion of  the  tripper.  ' 

The  only  manual  operation  required  is  the  setting  of  the  motor  operated 
tripper  and  the  insertion  of  its  spout  into  the  door  of  the  car.  The  stream 
of  pouches  then  pours  in  at  the  door  of  the  car,  there  to  be  stored  away 
by  employees  in  the  cars. 

MACHINERY  FOR  HANDLING  INCOMING  MAIL. 

For  handling  the  incoming  mail,  the  southerly  track  platform  has  an 
underground  belt  conveyor  similar  in  type  to  the  overhead  belt  conveyors, 
consisting  of  two  belts  leading  from  the  east  and  west  delivering  to  a 
bucket  elevator  installed  at  an  intermediate  point.  The  design  of  the  co- 
ordinated conveyor  and  elevator  equipment  was  one  of  the  most  difficult 
special  problems  of  the  mail  handling  system. 

"Loading  stations"  spaced  a  short  distance  apart  in  the  train  platform 
are  provided,  having  hopper  openings  in  the  floor  through  which  the 
pouches  are  thrown  from  the  arriving  mail  cars  to  be  received  on  a  moving 
belt. 

To  insure  safe  handling  without  injury  to  the  pouches  or  derangement 
of  the  apparatus,  each  pouch  must  be  transferred  from  the  belt  to  the 
bucket  elevator  at  the  proper  instant  when  the  buckets  of  the  elevator  are 
in  position  to  receive  the  load.  This  receiving  position  has  been  made  pos- 
sible, first  by  driving  the  whole  conveyor  and  bucket  elevator  system  by  a 


JULIAN    E.    WOODWELL,    '96  323 

single  electric  motor  installed  at  the  top  of  the  elevator  shaft,  and  second 
by  applying  a  time-interval  operation  to  the  intermediate  pouch  loading 
mechanism  placed  at  the  loading  stations  and  coordinated  with  the  inter- 
mediate transferring  mechanism  placed  between  the  delivery  point  of  the 
belt  conveyors  and  the  bucket  elevator.  In  the  operation  of  this  equipment, 
when  a  pouch  is  thrown  into  the  opening  of  a  loading  station,  it  is  not  re- 
ceived directly  on  the  belt,  but  on  a  shelf  above  and  at  one  side  of  the  belt. 
From  this  intermediate  receptacle  the  pouch  is  automatically  pushed,  at 
the  right  instant,  onto  the  moving  belt  by  a  specially  designed  mechanism 
operated  by  compressed  air.  The  time  of  the  deposit  on  the  belt  carrier  is 
controlled  by  a  bank  of  compressed  afr  valves  operated  directly  by  the 
bucket  lift  and  in  synchronism  with  same.  These  valves  regulate  the  supply 
and  exhaust  pressure  of  the  compressed  air  in  the  piping  connected  with 
air  cylinders  having  differential  pistons  which  move  the  bag  pushers  to  and 
fro  at  the  right  time.  Each  pusher  includes  a  pair  of  pistons  of  different 
diameters  fastened  to  one  piston  rod  working  tandem  in  two  cylinders. 
The  engines  have  no  valves  or  stuffing  boxes,  their  reciprocating  action  be- 
ing secured  by  different  pressures  obtained  through  the  valves  already  men- 
tioned, one  pipe  supplying  and  maintaining  a  constant  pressure  between 
the  two  pistons,  and  another  pipe  connected  with  the  supply  and  exhaust 
valves,  supplying  a  variable  pressure  applied  at  the  outer  end  of  the  larger 
piston.  The  pouches  are  thus  loaded  on  the  moving  belt  at  fixed  time 
intervals  and  spaced  a  definite  distance  apart.  The  transfer  of  the  bags 
from  the  belt  to  the  bucket  elevator,  through  the  medium  of  the  second 
intermediate  receptacle,  is  made  at  the  common  point  of  delivery  of  the 
buckets.  The  bags  are  loaded  into  the  ascending  buckets  from  a  tilting 
tray,  which  is  stationary  at  the  time  the  bag  is  received  and  which  auto- 
matically dumps  its  load  into  a  bucket  of  the  elevator  at  the  instant  when 
the  tray  and  the  ascending  bucket  occupy  the  proper  relative  positions.  The 
necessary  coordination  is  secured  by  a  mechanical  movement  derived  from 
the  bucket  elevator. 

To  prevent  conflict  of  delivery  of  pouches  from  the  east  and  west 
belts,  the  driving  mechanism  of  the  two  belts  is  made  interlocking,  so  that 
when  one  belt  is  working  the  other  is  out  of  commission.  The  bucket  ele- 
vator can  handle  1,200  bags  an  hour. 

Bucket  Lift: 

The  bucket  lift  is  essentially  of  special  design  throughout.  The  driv- 
ing chains  are  of  short  pitch,  reducing  the  angular  variations  in  velocity 
which  obtain  in  the  operation  of  the  more  conventional  forms  of  bucket 


324          MAIL    HANDLING    MACHINERY    IN    NEW    YORK    CITY 

lift  driving  chains,  and  secure  a  uniformity  of  motion  approaching  that 
of  a  belt  drive.  This  end  is  also  furthered  by  the  design  of  special 
sprockets  with  double  staggered  teeth.  The  chains  have  multiple  drop 
forged  nickel  steel  links  with  solid  bronze  bushings,  giving  unusually  large 
bearing  surfaces  on  pins  of  large  diameter  constructed  of  hollow  nickel 
steel  and  equipped  with  an  internal  system  of  lubrication,  so  designed  that 
lubrication  may  be  regulated  and  maintained  during  continuous  operation. 

The  buckets  are  of  pressed  steel  made  of  thin  high  grade  steel  to  re- 
duce weight  and  fitted  with  reinforcing  and  castings  of  steel,  to  which  the 
chain  pins  are  firmly  secured.  The  buckets  are  so  shaped  that  the  bottom 
surface  will  form  a  slide  of  proper  curvature  to  insure  the  positive  delivery 
of  the  bags  at  the  top  of  the  lift. 

Eestrictions  of  space  at  the  foot  of  the  bucket  lift  necessitated  the 
placing  of  the  entire  driving  mechanism  and  slack  chain  take-up  at  the  top 
of  the  lift  in  the  mezzanine  story  of  the  post  office  building. 

To  reduce  vibration  and  to  secure  proper  alignment  of  parts,  the  en- 
tire overhead  support,  motor  and  driving  mechanism  is  supported  on  a  mas- 
sive base  casting  weighing  several  tons  and  filled  with  concrete,  the  whole 
resting  on  a  sound  deadening  pad  of  block  cork.  To  provide  for  the  eleva- 
tion and  adjustment  of  the  main  bucket  lift  driving  shaft  and  sprockets 
necessitated  a  special  design  of  driving  mechanism,  employing  a  propeller 
shaft  with  bevel  gears  mounted  on  a  radical  yoke  to  secure  permanent  align- 
ment between  the  stationary  and  the  adjustable  shafts,  somewhat  similar 
to  the  rear  axle  propeller  shaft  drive  of  an  automobile.  The  bearings  of  the 
head  shaft  slide  in  curved  guides  and  are  raised  or  lowered  in  parallelism 
by  jack  screws  geared  for  joint  operation.  The  total  weight  of  the  bed  plate, 
sprockets,  driving  shafts  and  chains  is  over  20  tons.  The  lubrication  of 
shafts  of  low  speed  is  secured  by  compression  grease  cups,  and  of  shafts  and 
bearings  of  higher  speed,  by  a  complete  system  of  forced  feed  lubrication 
piped  separately  to  each  bearing.  The  motor  drive  of  the  bucket  lift  in- 
cludes a  combination  of  spur  and  bevel  gears,  reducing  the  speed  of  the  650- 
volt  50  horse-power  motor  from  150  to  4  revolutions  per  minute  for  the 
head  shaft  and  main  driving  sprockets. 

The  bucket  lift  motor  is  equipped  with  a  magnetic  self-starting  con- 
troller fitted  with  "no  voltage,"  "overload"  and  "push-button  release," 
one  at  the  train  platform  level  and  the  other  located  near  the  motor. 

In  addition  to  the  two  operating  stations  mentioned,  release  push  but- 
tons are  located  at  the  train  platform  convenient  to  the  automatic  loading 
stations  for  shutting  down  the  machinery  in  case  of  emergency.  Immediate- 
ly above  each  of  the  manual  loading  stations  and  the  loading  stations  of  the 


JULIAN  E.  WOODWELL,    '96  325 

bucket  lift,  are  installed  U  shaped  pivoted  bars  extending  around  the 
front  and  sides  of  the  path  of  the  buckets,  so  that  any  mail  pouches  pro- 
truding beyond  the  front  edge  or  sides  of  the  bucket  will  raise  the  bars, 
which  in  turn  will  close  a  switch  connected  with  the  push  button  release 
circuit,  thus  shutting  down  the  machinery  and  preventing  damage  to  the 
mail  sacks  or  machinery. 

Electric  Service: 

There  are  two  sources  of  current  supply  for  operating  the  mail  hand- 
ling motors,  one  consisting  of  separate  feeders  from  the  main  switchboard 
in  the  power  plant,  terminating  in  a  distributing  tablet  located  in  the 
transverse  tunnel  below  the  track  level.  This  distributing  panel  is  fitted 
with  switches  and  separate  feeders  to  each  of  the  four  groups  of  conveyor 
motors.  The  other  source  of  supply  consists  of  a  connection  taken  from  the 
third  rail  operating  the  train  service,  the  feeder  connecting  to  distributing 
panel,  on  which  is  mounted  a  double  throw  switch.  This  insures  uninter- 
rupted service  for  the  conveyor  motors. 

Operating  Results : 

Some  idea  of  the  speed  of  the  apparatus  may  be  gained  from  watch- 
ing the  loading  of  one  of  the  heavy  western  mail  trains  which  carries  the 
early  morning  newspapers  and  steamer  mail,  together  with  an  enormous 
quantity  of  first-class  matter  to  western  points,  amounting  in  all  to  fifty  or 
sixty  tons,  comprising  from  1,500  to  1,800  mail  pouches.  The  mail  for 
this  train  is  unloaded  from  the  wagons,  much  of  it  resorted  and  segregated 
for  the  different  cars  and  despatched  from  the  station  in  less  than  three 
hours,  over  twenty-five  tons  being  handled  during  the  last  hour,  the  bags 
being  frequently  unloaded  into  the  cars  at  as  high  a  rate  as  sixty  a  minute. 
From  the  entrances  in  the  spiral  chutes  the  bags  descend  through  the  wind- 
ing convolutions  of  the  chutes,  continuing  their  journey  along  the  rapidly 
moving  belts  and  finally  emerge  at  the  door  of  the  car,  almost  noiselessly, 
the  entire  journey  occupying  about  thirty  seconds. 

The  average  daily  weight  of  mail  loaded  on  the  regular  outgoing 
postal  trains  of  the  Pennsylvania  railroad  and  the  duration  of  the  loading 
periods  is  shown  on  the  accompanying  chart,  Fig.  4,  each  train  being  desig- 
nated by  its  regular  number. 

By  reference  to  the  chart  it  will  be  seen  that  about  fifty  tons  of  mail 
are  loaded  on  train  No.  11  and  during  this  period  over  sixteen  tons  are 
loaded  on  train  No.  53.  Simultaneous  loading  of  mail  aggregating  over 
sixty  tons  also  occurs  on  trains  Nos.  19,  55  and  1019.  (Fig.  4.) 


326 


MAIL    HANDLING    MACHINERY    IN    NEW    YOEK    CITY 


In  addition  to  the  regular  postal  trains  indicated  on  the  chart,  fifty- 
four  outgoing  and  sixty-seven  incoming  Pennsylvania  railroad  trains  as 
well  as  approximately  the  same  number  of  trains  on  the  Long  Island  rail- 


uo 


10 


-No.  11 


1019 


35 


10  11   13    1234     56     7     8     9    10    11   13     13 

ferJfcH*—  —A-M-. 

*  TiinA 


o.  U 


Time 
FIG.  4 


road,  carry  mail  in  small  lots  which  must  be  transported  to  and  from  the 
trains  at  frequent  intervals. 

The  intermittent  nature  and  frequency  of  the  traffic  and  the  peak  load 
demands  upon  the  mail  handling  machinery  are  thus  made  evident. 


THE    DEVELOPMENT     OF    A     SYSTEM     OP    UNDERGROUND 

PNEUMATIC  TUBES  FOR  THE  TRANSPORTATION 

OF  UNITED  STATES  MAIL. 

By  B.  C.  BATCHELLER,  '86, 
Chief  Engineer,  American  Pneumatic  Service  Co.,  New  York  City. 

BRIEF  OUTLINE  OF  THE  SYSTEMS. 

PRIOR  to  the  year  1892,  the  only  extensive  systems  of  underground 
pneumatic  tubes  were  the  2y^  and  3-inch  tubes  in  London,  used  in  connec- 
tion with  the  telegraph  for  forwarding  messages  from  sub-stations  to  the 
central  office ;  similar  small  tubes  in  Paris,  Berlin  and  Vienna,  used  by  the 
government  for  sending  messages;  one  or  two  lines  in  New  York  City, 
used  by  the  Western  Union  Telegraph  Company  in  connection  with  its 
telegraph  systems;  and  a  few  other  short,  isolated  tubes,  none  of  which 
was  more  than  three  inches  in  diameter.  Besides  these,  several  experi- 
mental undergound  railways  were  constructed  and  operated  by  pneumatic 
propulsion,  some  of  them  large  enough  to  carry  passengers,  but  they  never 
went  beyond  the  experimental  stage. 

While  these  small  tubes  fulfilled  their  purpose  admirably,  there 
seemed  to  be  a  field  for  tubes  of  a  size  suitable  for  the  transportation  of  let- 
ters, parcels,  etc.,  within  the  limits  of  large  cities,  where  traffic  was  becom- 
ing more  congested  each  year.  It  was  believed  that  if  a  system  could  be 
constructed  and  operated  at  a  reasonable  cost,  to  give  uninterrupted  service 
at  high  speed,  it  would  find  a  broad  field  and  an  ever-increasing  demand. 
Pneumatic  tubes  seemed  to  be  especially  well  adapted  to  the  transportation 
of  letters  between  central  post  offices,  railway  stations  and  the  numerous 
branch  post  offices.  Here  were  large  quantities  of  mail,  that  could  be  made 
up  in  parcels  of  a  size  adapted  to  a  tube  of  six  or  eight  inches  diameter, 
being  forwarded  at  every  hour  of  the  day  and  night.  To  transport  them 
by  tube  would  not  only  give  more  rapid  transit,  along  an  unobstructed 
route,  but  would  give  a  continuous  service,  reducing  the  congestion  in  the 
post  offices  that  results  from  holding  mail  for  wagons  that  leave  on 
scheduled  times.  Furthermore,  it  was  thought  that  the  tubes  would  give  a 
more  even  distribution  of  work  for  postal  clerks  than  obtains  when  the 

327 


328         PNEUMATIC    TUBES    FOE    TEANSPOETATION    OF    MAIL 

mails  arrive  in  large  bulk  at  irregular  intervals.  The  removal  of  some  of 
the  wagons  from  the  crowded  streets  was  also  a  strong  argument  in  favor 
of  the  proposed  new  system.  Thus  it  came  about  that  the  new  system  was 
first  to  be  applied  to  the  transportation  of  the  mails. 

A  beginning  was  made  in  Philadelphia  by  the  construction  of  a  double 
line  of  6-inch  tubes,  about  five-eighths  of  a  mile  long,  between  the  central 
post  office  and  one  of  the  branch  stations.  It  was  an  innovation,  and  five 
years  elapsed  before  its  possibilities  were  sufficiently  appreciated  to  secure 
the  necessary  appropriation  for  an  extension,  but  in  1897  the  enterprise 
went  rapidly  forward.  During  that  and  the  succeeding  year,  fifteen  miles 
of  8-inch  tubes  were  laid  in  the  city  of  New  York,  about  four  miles  in 
Philadelphia,  and  a  small  amount  in  Boston.  The  present  mileage  in  five 
cities  is  approximately  as  follows : 

New  York   57% 

Philadelphia    20 

Boston    14 

Chicago 18% 

St.  Louis    4 

Total,         113i/2 

The  tubes  are  always  laid  in  pairs  for  sending  in  opposite  directions; 
therefore,  the  length  of  the  lines  between  stations  is  one-half  that  given 
in  the  above  table. 

The  New  York  system  consists  of  five  lines  radiating  from  the  central 
post  office,  viz: — a  line  to  Brooklyn,  via  the  Brooklyn  Bridge;  a  line  to 
branch  stations  "  Wall  Street "  and  "  P  ",  the  latter  located  in  the  Cus- 
tom House;  a  line  to  the  "Hudson  Terminal";  a  line  extending  north- 
ward on  the  east  side  of  the  city,  as  far  as  One  Hundred  Twenty-fifth  Street, 
connecting  with  eight  branch  stations,  including  one  in  the  Grand  Central 
Depot;  and  a  line  extending  northward  on  the  west  side  of  the  city, 
connecting  with  the  east  side  line  at  One  Hundred  and  Twenty-fifth  Street, 
and  tapping  ten  branch  statione  en  route.  The  east  and  west  side  lines  are 
cross-connected  at  the  Grand  Central  Depot.  In  Brooklyn  there  is  a  line 
from  the  central  post  office  to  the  Long  Island  Eailway  Station/ on  Flat- 
bush  Avenue.  There  are  altogether  twenty-five  tube  stations,  ten  of  which 
are  equipped  with  power  plants  for  compressing  the  air,  using  either  steam 
or  electric  power.  The  air  compressors  take  the  expanded  air  from  the  in- 
coming tubes,  and  after  compressing  it,  discharge  it  directly  into  the  out- 
going tubes,  thereby  maintaining  constant  circulation  with  the  pressure  in 


B.    C.    BATCHELLER,   '86  329 

the  tubes  always  above  that  of  the  atmosphere.  The  tubes  terminate  at 
all  the  stations  on  the  ground  floor,  in  the  heart  of  the  mailing  division, 
so  that  letters  have  to  be  carried  only  a  few  feet  from  the  sorting  cases  to 
the  tube,  and  vice  versa,  saving  all  possible  time  and  labor.  The  mail 
is  sent  through  the  tubes  at  an  average  speed  of  thirty  miles  per  hour,  in 
steel  carriers,  which  are  inside  about  7  inches  diameter,  by  21  inches  long. 
They  carry  from  200  to  600  ordinary  letters,  and  weigh,  when  filled,  about 
30  pounds. 

During  the  past  year  a  double  line  of  8-inch  tube  has  been  constructed 
for  the  United  States  Treasury  Department,  between  the  Custom  House 
and  the  Appraisers'  Warehouse,  in  New  York  City.  This  line  is  about 
two  miles  in  length,  and  is  owned  and  operated  by  the  Government.  It 
is  used  for  the  transmission  of  letters,  documents,  etc. 

The  mail  tube  systems  in  the  other  cities  are  similiar  in  all  important 
respects  to  the  New  York*  system,  and,  therefore,  call  for  no  further 
description. 

DEVELOPMENT  or  MATHEMATICAL  FORMULAE. 

Before  beginning  to  construct,  or  even  to  plan  the  details  of  the  first 
line  of  tubes,  it  was  realized  that  much  time  and  effort  could  be  saved 
by  acquiring  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  theory  of  the  flow  of  air  through 
long  tubes, — a  subject  not  generally  well  understood.  The  laws  govern- 
ing the  compression  of  air  under  various  conditions  are  stated,  extensively 
discussed,  and  illustrated  by  numerous  examples,  in  the  many  text  books 
used  in  technical  schools  and  by  the  engineering  profession  generally.  The 
text  books  also  devote  considerable  space  to  the  flow  of  air  through  ori- 
fices, but  they  usually  treat  the  subject  of  the  flow  of  air  in  long  tubes 
briefly  and  imperfectly,  giving  a  few  simple  formulae,  which  may  be 
sufficiently  accurate  for  ordinary  purposes,  for  example,  to  ascertain  the 
loss  of  pressure  between  an  air  reservoir  and  a  rock  drill,  but  almost  useless 
in  determining  the  loss  of  pressure  in  a  pneumatic  tube  line,  where  more 
than  90  per  cent  of  the  work  of  compression  is  expended  in  overcoming  the 
resistance  to  flow  through  the  tube. 

At  the  outset  a  search  was  made  for  all  available  formulas  and  ex- 
perimental data  bearing  upon  the  subject.  The  ninth  edition  of  the 
Encyclopedia  Brittanica  contains  an  article  by  Professor  William  Caw- 
thorne  Unwin  on  the  subject  of  hydro-mechanics,  and  this  article  in- 
cludes formulae  expressing  the  laws  governing  the  flow  of  compressible 
fluids  in  pipes,  with  coefficient  based  on  a  number  of  experiments.  Pro- 


330         PNEUMATIC    TUBES    FOE    TEANSPOETATION    OF    MAIL 

fessor  Unwin  has  since  treated  the  subject  in  a  book  entitled,  "  Develop- 
ment and  Transmission  of  Power  ".  In  its  last  analysis  the  subject  has  to 
deal  with  extremely  intricate  phenomena,  and  we  can  never  hope  to  express 
them  completely  by  mathematical  symbols;  but  the  formulae  we  have  are 
rational  and  sufficiently  accurate  for  engineering  purposes. 

The  well-known  formulae  for  the  flow  of  water  through  long  pipes 
is  known,  from  wide  experience  with  pipes  of  varying  diameters  and 
lengths,  to  give  the  velocity  of  flow  with  a  high  degree  of  precision.  Pro- 
fessor Unwin  reasoned  that  a  formula  of  similiar  form,  which  embodied 
also  the  well-known  laws  of  expansion  of  gases,  and  which  thereby  takes 
into  consideration  the  varying  density  of  the  fluid,  should  express  with 
equal  precision  the  velocity  of  flow  of  air  or  other  gas,  provided  correct 
values  are  used  for  the  experimental  coefficients.  Proceeding  upon  this 
theory,  he  derived  a  formula  by  equating  the  change  in  kinetic  energy 
to  the  work  of  overcoming  friction,  expressed  as  in  the  case  of  the  flow 
of  water,  and  the  work  of  expansion  of  the  fluid.  He  assumes  that  the 
expansion  takes  place  at  constant  temperature,  and  in  practice  it  is  found 
that  that  assumption  is  practically  true.  Most  of  the  work  of  expansion 
is  expended  in  friction  of  the  air,  which  reappears  in  the  form  of  heat; 
thus  the  temperature  of  the  air  remains  unchanged.  In  flowing  through 
long  metal  tubes  the  air  is  most  effectively  stirred  and  quickly  gives  up 
its  heat  to,  or  receives  heat  from,  the  tube.  The  surface  of  the  tube  is  very 
large  compared  with  the  quantity  of  heat  transferred;  therefore,  the  tem- 
perature of  the  air  in  the  tube  and  the  air  or  earth  surrounding  the  tube, 
do  not  differ  much  after  the  air  has  flowed  a  short  distance.  Experiments 
with  the  underground  postal  tubes  in  Philadelphia  showed  that  the  tem- 
perature of  the  air  in  the  tubes  was  practically  the  same  as  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  ground  in  which  the  tubes  were  laid.  Experiments  at  St. 
Gothard's  tunnel  showed  that  the  temperature  of  air  flowing  in  a  pipe 
6,000  meters  long,  was  at  every  point  about  3  degrees  C.  below  that  of  the 
air  surrounding  the  pipe. 

Professor  Unwin  pointed  out  that  the  experimental  coefficient,  which 
enters  into  this  formula,  varies  somewhat  with  the  diameter  of  the  tube, 
and  he  has  given  a  simple,  empirical  formula  to  express  this  variation, 
which  is  almost  exact  within  the  limits  of  our  experience.  This  was  dem- 
onstrated by  the  experiments  of  Culley  and  Sabine  on  the  small  telegraph 
tubes  in  London;  Stockalper's  experiment  at  St.  Gothard's  tunnel;  Eied- 
ler  &  Cuthermuth's  experiments  on  the  Paris  air  mains,  and  experiments 
of  the  writer  on  the  6-inch  and  8-inch  postal  tubes  in  Philadelphia. 

The  Philadelphia  experiments  seemed  to  indicate  that  the  coefficient 


B.    C.    BATCHELLEB,   '86  331 

ill  the  Unwin  formula  varied  slightly  with  the  velocity  of  the  air,  or  with 
some  other  function  which  varied  with  the  velocity;  but  to  what  extent 
this  enters  as  a  disturbing  element,  only  future  experiments  can  demon- 
strate. 

The  Unwin  formulae  show  the  limitations  of  pneumatic  propulsion — 
the  absolute  impossibility  of  operating  a  tube  more  than  a  few  miles  in 
length  at  a  high  rate  of  speed.  This  was  well  worth  knowing,  for  many 
people  have  dreamed  of  pneumatic  tubes  connecting  remote  cities,  for 
the  purpose  of  transmitting  messages  and  parcels  at  great  speed.  The  for- 
mulae shows  that  it  is  physically  impossible  to  obtain  a  mean  speed  of  more 
than  30  miles  per  hour  in  an  8-inch  tube  more  than  8.35  miles  long,  even 
though  the  initial  pressure  were  infinite.  This  is  an  application  of  the 
formulae  beyond  the  limits  of  experiment,  but  it  serves  as  a  warning 
against  useless  expenditure  of  money. 

By  means  of  the  formulae  it  is  possible  to  compute  the  air  pressure 
and  velocity  at  any  point  in  a  tube,  the  volume  of  air  to  be  supplied,  the 
power  that  must  be  expended,  and  other  information  important  to  know 
before  beginning  the  construction  of  a  physical  system. 

Professor  Unwin  did  not  consider  the  case  in  which  the  flow  of  air  is 
modified  by  the  presence  of  carriers  in  transit  in  the  tube.  The  carriers  com- 
plicate the  problem  somewhat  by  introducing  additional  resistance,  but 
a  satisfactory  solution  of  this  case  has  been  found.  Carrier  friction  is  a 
constantly  varying  quantity,  depending  upon  the  weight  of  the  carrier  and 
the  amount  of  lubricant  in  the  tube.  When  the  tube  is  dry  the  friction 
is  about  0.4,  but  when  there  is  moisture  present,  the  friction  is  less  than 
half  this  amount.  The  formulae  show  that  the  work  expended  in  moving 
the  carriers  is  small  compared  with  the  work  expended  in  moving  the  air, 
and  the  difference  decreases  as  the  velocity  increases. 

PRESSURE  OR  VACUUM. 

Tubes  can  be  operated  either  by  compressed  or  rarefied  air,  but  the 
former  has  been  exclusively  used  in  the  underground  systems  that  are 
the  subject  of  this  paper.  If  the  air  is  exhausted  instead  of  compressed, 
closed  receivers  must  be  used  at  all  stations.  This  type  of  receiver  is 
more  expensive  to  manufacture  and  maintain  than  open  receivers,  and 
being  more  intricate,  gives  more  trouble  in  operation:  Furthermore,  some 
supplementary  force  must  be  provided  to  remove  the  carriers  from  the 
receiver,  since  the  atmospheric  pressure  is  higher  than  the  pressure  in 
the  tube.  In  small  tubes  gravity  can  be  used  to  do  this,  but  with  8-inch 


332         PNEUMATIC    TUBES    FOR    TRANSPORTATION    OF    MAIL 

tubes  there  is  usually  insufficient  room  in  the  stations  to  allow  the  termi- 
nals to  be  so  placed  that  the  carriers  will  slide  out  of  the  receiver  under  the 
force  of  gravity.  Long  lines  of  underground  tubes  will  eventually  leak 
more  or  less,  and  through  these  leaks,  dirt,  sand,  water,  etc.,  would  be 
drawn  in  if  the  pressure  inside  were  less  than  the  atmospheric  pressure 
outside.  This,  however,  is  not  the  case  if  the  pressure  in  the  tube  is 
above  that  of  the  atmosphere,  which  is  a  strong  argument  in  favor  of  com- 
pressed air. 

The  method  of  operating  by  exhausting  the  air  is  more  economical, 
so  far  as  the  expenditure  of  power  is  concerned,  and  the  dispatching  mech- 
anism at  the  initial  end  of  the  tube  is  simpler;  but  the  working  pres- 
sure is  limited  to  something  less  than  fourteen  pounds  per  square  inch, 
and  there  might  be  conditions  making  that  insufficient. 

MATERIAL  AND  MANUFACTURE  OF  THE  TUBES. 

The  selection  of  suitable  material  for  the  tubes  and  the  process  of 
their  manufacture  were  subjects  that  called  for  serious  consideration. 
Brass,  lead,  wrought  iron  and  steel  had  been  used  for  small  tubes,  but  the 
precedents  were  of  little  importance.  The  first  attempt  was  to  obtain 
6-inch  lapwelded  iron  or  steel  tubes,  expanded  and  made  smooth  on  the 
interior  by  drawing  a  mandrel  through  them.  They  were  smooth  enough, 
but  varied  so  much  in  diameter  at  the  ends  of  the  lengths,  where  they 
join,  that  they  were  rejected.  This  was  probably  fortunate,  for  had  they 
been  otherwise  satisfactory,  their  rigidity,  unless  made  very  thick,  would 
have  been  insufficient  under  the  severe  strains  to  which  they  are  sometimes 
subjected  when  laid  underground. 

The  next  material  selected  proved  to  be  the  material  that  has  stood 
the  test  of  time  and  has  become  the  standard  for  all  large  tube  construc- 
tion, viz.,  cast  iron.  The  first  tube  line  was  made  of  lengths  of  bored 
cast  iron  water  pipe,  machined  at  the  ends  to  allow  them  to  fit  one  into 
the  other,  and  so  insure  smooth  joints  on  the  interior.  The  pipe  was  a 
little  too  thin,  resulting  in  an  occasional  break,  but  otherwise  was  entirely 
satisfactory,  and  is  in  use  to-day.  Since  this  first  experiment  the  pipe 
has  been  cast  of  proper  thickness  and  of  a  good  mixture  to  give  sound 
castings  that  can  be  readily  bored.  A  "bell  and  spigot"  joint  calked 
with  yarn  and  lead,  so  common  in  gas  and  water  pipes,  has  been  the 
standard  joint  for  pneumatic  tubes  from  the  beginning,  excepting  special 
lengths,  which  have  flanged  and  bolted  joints. 

To  bore  accurately  and  economically  large  quantities  of  tubing  neces- 


B.    C.    BATCHELLEE,    '86  333 

sitated  specially  designed  boring  machines  and  elaborately  equipped  plants, 
several  of  which  have  been  constructed.  The  first  permanent  plant  was 
equipped  with  vertical  boring  machines — made  vertical  in  order  to  keep 
the  cutters  clear  of  chips  by  gravity — provided  with  special  adjustments 
for  quickly  bringing  the  axis  of  the  tube  to  coincide  with  the  axis  of  the 
boring  tool.  The  tube  was  held  stationary  while  the  boring  bar  and 
cutters  revolved  and  fed  downward  into  the  tube.  An  overhead  track 
and  trolley  were  designed  to  transport  the  tubes  to  and  from  the  boring 
machines,  and  small  cranes  at  each  machine  facilitated  the  transfer  of 
tubes  from  the  trolley  to  the  boring  position. 

Two  other  plants  were  equipped  with  horizontal  boring  machines, 
in  which  the  tube  was  made  to  revolve  while  a  non-revolving  cutter  head 
on  the  end  of  a  square  boring  bar  was  slowly  fed  through  the  tube. 
These  machines  required  fans  to  keep  the  cutters  clear  of  chips.  The 
horizontal  machines  had  one  advantage  over  the  vertical,  in  that  they  had 
means  for  finishing  the  ends  of  the  tubes,  by  the  use  of  special  cutters 
attached  to  the  boring  bar.  In  the  first  plant  equipped  with  vertical 
machines,  the  ends  of  the  tubes  were  finished  in  separate  machines  de- 
signed for  the  purpose,  which  necessitated  two  settings  of  each  length  of 
tube. 

It  was  found  possible  to  bore  about  six  feet  of  8-inch  tube  per  hour, 
and  the  tube  was  finished  at  one  passage  of  the  boring  cutters. 

All  that  has  thus  far  been  said  regarding  tubes  and  their  manufacture 
refers  to  straight  tubing.  In  order  to  make  short  bends  in  a  tube  line, 
it  is  necessary  to  have  specially  bent  or  curved  lengths.  At  first  these 
were  made  of  seamless  brass  drawn  and  bent  to  the  desired  radius.  To 
bend  them  they  were  first  filled  with  rosin,  then  passed  back  and  forth 
through  rolls  until  the  desired  curvature  was  obtained.  The  next  pro- 
cess was  to  remove  the  rosin,  a  slow  and  tedius  process  at  best;  then  a 
series  of  mandrels  were  driven  through  the  bent  tube,  one  after  the  other, 
each  mandrel  being  slightly  larger  than  its  predecessor;  the  purpose  of 
the  mandrel  being  to  give  the  tube  a  uniform,  circular  cross-section  of 
correct  diameter.  The  last  process  was  to  cut  off  the  ends  of  the  bent 
tube  and  attach  flanges  by  soldering. 

These  brass  bends  were  expensive  and  difficult  to  manufacture.  "When 
laid  in  the  ground  they  required  a  covering  of  concrete  or  brickwork  to 
protect  them  from  external  injury,  and,  on  account  of  the  softness  of  the 
material,  the  carriers  wore  holes  through  them  in  three  or  four  years. 

When  the  brass  bends  began  to  wear  out,  it  was  evident  that  some 
other  material  must  be  found.  A  few  steel  bends  were  used  in  New  York, 


334         PNEUMATIC    TUBES    FOR    TRANSPORTATION    OF    MAIL 

but  they  did  not  wear  much,  if  any,  longer  than  the  brass.  Much  study 
was  given  to  the  subject,  which  resulted  in  devising  a  process  of  casting 
,  iron  bends  with  an  inner  surface  so  smooth  and  accurate  to  dimensions 
that  they  only  required  a  little  grinding  with  an  emery  wheel  to  finish 
the  interior.  The  only  machine  work  on  them  consists  of  counter-boring 
the  ends,  and  facing  and  drilling  the  flanges.  These  curved  sections  of 
tube  are  made  22y2  degrees,  11%  degrees,  7°  10'  and  5  degrees  in  length  of 
arc,  and  by  combining  them  a  bend  of  almost  any  desired  angle  can  be 
secured.  They  are  much  less  expensive  to  manufacture  than  the  brass 
bends ;  they  are  more  accurate  in  curvature,,  and  they  are  as  durable  as  the 
straight  cast  iron  tubing.  The  production  of  these  curved  cast-iron  tubes 
is  one  of  the  important  achievements  in  the  development  of  the  system. 

AIR  COMPRESSORS. 

To  operate  the  first  line  of  tubes  in  Philadelphia,  a  duplex  steam- 
driven  air  compressor  was  selected.  It  was  thought  that  a  duplex  com- 
pressor, which  gives  four  discharges  per  revolution,  was  necessary  to  secure 
a  uniform  flow  of  air  in  the  tube,  and  this  opinion  was  borne  out  by  ex- 
perience. This  machine,  and  all  subsequent  machines  that  have  been 
installed,  run  at  constant  speed,  delivering  a  constant  volume  of  air  per 
minute,  which  maintains  a  nearly  constant  average  carrier  speed  in  the 
tube.  When  no  carriers  are  in  transit,  the  air  pressure  is  determined  by 
the  length  and  diameter  of  the  tube,  since  it  is  due  entirely  to  friction  of 
the  air  flowing  through  the  tube.  Roughly  speaking,  about  three  pounds 
pressure  per  square  inch  per  mile  of  tube  is  necessary  to  give  a  mean 
velocity  of  thirty  miles  per  hour  in  an  8-inch  tube ;  but  the  initial  pressure 
per  mile  of  tube  increases  as  the  length  of  the  tube  increases,  so  three 
pounds  is  only  correct  for  the  first  one  or  two  miles. 

When  carriers  are  in  transit,  the  initial  pressure  fluctuates,  depend- 
ing upon  the  number  of  carriers  in  the  tube,  the  weight  of  the  carriers 
and  the  amount  of  moisture  present,  which  acts  as  a  lubricant,  By  main- 
taining a  constant  compressor  speed,  the  quantity  of  air  flowing  through 
the  tube  is  constant  and  the  pressure  automatically  adjusts  itself  to  the 
load.  None  of  the  mail  tubes  requires  an  initial  pressure  in  excess  of 
twelve  pounds,  and  many  of  them  not  more  than  six  or  eight  pounds.  The 
compressors  are,  therefore,  low-pressure  machines. 

At  all  the  power  stations,  excepting  those  located  in  the  central  post 
offices  and  at  Madison  Square  branch  in  New  York,  electric  motors  are 
used  to  drive  the  air  compressors.  Two  types  of  compressor  are  used : 


B.    C.    BATCHELLER,   >86  335 

one  having  two  double-acting  air  cylinders  with  reciprocating  pistons, 
driven  by  cranks  on  the  ends  of  a  common  crank  shank;  the  other,  a  ro- 
tary machine  consisting  of  two  2-toothed  gears,  called  impellers,  revolving 
together  within  a  close-fitting  iron  case,  commonly  known  as— a  ~  Boot " 
blower. 

The  reciprocating  piston  compressors  all  have  mechanically-moved 
"  Corliss  "  intake  valves  in  the  heads-  of  the  cylinders,  which  receive  their 
motion  from  eccentrics  on  the  crank  shaft.  Both  poppet  and  "  Corliss  " 
outlet  valves  have  been  used,  but  the  latter  are  more  satisfactory.  The 
usual  objection  to  mechanically  moved  outlet  valves,  that  their  point  of 
opening  in  the  stroke  does  not  change  to  suit  varying  pressures,  is  not. an 
important  objection  in  this  case,  for  the  reason  that  the  pressure  varies 
within  such  narrow  limits.  With  such  low  pressures  the  mechanically 
moved  valve  opens  more  promptly  and  is  much  quieter  than  a  poppet  valve. 

The  rotary  compressors  have  given  most  satisfactory  results  up  to  about 
eight  pounds  air  pressure,  and  a  large  number  of  them  are  used  in  the 
Xew  York  system.  Their  efficiency  is  equal  to  that  of  the  piston  com- 
pressor at  six  pounds  pressure,  and  exceeds  it  at  lower  pressures.  Their 
first  cost  is  only  one-half  that  of  the  piston  compresor,  and  they  require 
far  less  attention  in  operation.  They  have  the  further  advantage  of  oc- 
cupying much  less  floor  space.  When  electric-driven,  the  motor  is  mounted 
on  the  bedplate  and  directly  connected  to  the  compressor  shaft.  There 
are  five  bearings,  all  provided  with  oil  reservoirs  and  oiling  rings,  which 
give  automatic  lubrication.  These  rotary  compressors  differ  from  the 
ordinary  "  Eoot "  blowers  used  for  blowing  cupola  furnaces,  only  in  having 
the  impellers  much  shorter,  relative  to  their  diameter;  in  more  accurate 
workmanship,  which  makes  it  possible  to  have  less  clearance  between  the 
impellers  and  the  casing ;  and  in  greater  weight  and  strength. 

The  discharge  from  the  rotary  compressors  is  more  pulsating  than 
from  a  duplex  piston  compressor,  necessitating  the  use  of  a  small  tank 
with  each  machine  to  reduce  the  pulsations  before  the  air  enters  the  tube. 

Both  types  of  compressor  have  been  developed  by  the  requirements  of 
the  pneumatic  tube  service,  and  both  will  probably  continue  to  be  used.  It 
is  the  custom  to  install  at  least  one  piston  compressor  in  each  power  station, 
provided  with  an  extra-powerful  motor,  in  order  to  obtain  a. pressure  of 
25  or  30  pounds,  if  required  to  remove  blocks  in  the  tube  lines. 


336        PNEUMATIC    TUBES    FOB    TRANSPORTATION    OF    MAIL 


TERMINAL  MACHINERY. 

The  records  of  the  Patent  Office  show  that  the  terminal  machinery 
has  been  the  subject  of  most  pneumatic  tube  inventions.  As  small  tube 
terminals  were  not  generally  applicable  to  large  tubes,  this  field  had 
scarcely  been  touched  when  the  development  of  the  underground  system 
began. 

There  are  two  distinct  machines  on  every  tube  line.  One  is  used  in 
dispatching,  to  insert  the  carrier  into  the  tube  without  allowing  the  com- 
pressed air  to  escape,  and  is  called  the  transmitter;  the  other  is  used  to 
stop  the  carrier  when  it  arrives  at  a  station,  and  automatically  discharge 
it  from  the  tube.  It  is  called  a  receiver.  There  are  two  types  of  receiver 
— one,  called  an  open  receiver,  is  used  at  the  open  end  of  the  tube;  the 
other,  called  a  closed  receiver,  is  used  at  intermediate  stations  where 
the  pressure  in  the  tube  is  considerably  higher  than  atmospheric,  necessi- 
tating an  air-lock  to  prevent  a  violent  escape  of  air  when  the  carrier  is 
discharged.  In  addition  to  these,  there  is  a  modified  form  of  closed 
receiver  that  automatically  selects  and  discharges  from  the  tube  the  car- 
rier intended  for  its  station,  allowing  other  carriers  to  pass  on  in  the  tube 
to  a  succeeding  station. 

Transmitter. — Several  types  of  transmitter  have  been  devised.  The 
earliest  form  used  is  the  simplest,  consisting  of  a  cylindrical  chamber  just 
large  enough  to  receive  a  carrier,  mounted  on  trunnions  and  enclosed  in  a 
circular  box  which  has  three  openings,  one,  through  which  the  carrier  is 
inserted,  the  second,  through  which  the  air  enters,  and  the  third,  through 
which  the  air  and  the  carrier  pass  out  into  the  tube.  The  receiving  chamber 
is  rotated  on  its  trunnions,  by  means  of  a  hand  lever,  from  the  position  oppo- 
site the  opening  through  which  the  carrier  is  inserted,  to  the  position  in  line 
with  the  tube  that  allows  the  carrier  to  be  driven  forward  by  the  air  current. 
In  the  latter  position  the  opening  through  which  the  carrier  is  inserted  is 
closed  by  a  circular  plate  that  prevents  the  escape  of  air.  The  device  is 
nothing  more  than  a  large  two-way  cock.  It  was  never  extensively  used 
because  of  the  labor  of  turning  it  by  hand,  as  originally  designed. 

The  next  type  of  transmitter  consisted  of  two  sections  of  tube  a  little 
longer  than  a  carrier,  so  mounted  in  a  swinging  frame  that  either  section 
could  be  swung  into  line  with  the  tube,  their  motion  being  transverse  to 
the  axis  of  the  tube.  In  dispatching,  the  carrier  is  placed  in  one  of  the 
tube  sections  and  swung  into  line  with  the  tube  to  be  driven  forward  by 
the  air  current;  then  the  tube  section  returns  to  its  original  position  to 


B.    C.    BATCHELLER,   '86  337 

receive  the  next  carrier.  When  one  of  the  tube  sections  is  swung  to  one 
side,  the  other  is  in  line  with  and  maintains  the  continuity  of  the  tube. 
The  two  movable  tube  sections  and  their  supporting  frame  are  swung  for- 
ward and  back  by  an  air  operated  cylinder  and  piston,  having  ;a  slide 
valve  controlled  by  .a  hand  lever,  and  an  automatic  device  that  returns  the 
tube  sections  to  their  first  position  immediately  after  a  carrier  is  dis- 
patched. This  type  of  transmitter  was  extensively  used,  but  finally  gave 
way  to  a  more  compact  and  less  expensive  type  known  as  the  gravity 
transmitter. 

The  gravity  transmitter  is  an  air-lock  with  two  counter-weighted 
swinging  doors  that  are  open  successively  by  the  weight  of  the  entering 
carrier.  The  chamber  between  the  doors  is  of  the  same  diameter  as  the 
tube,  and  just  long  enough  to  receive  one  carrier.  It  is  a  prolongation  of 
the  tube  inclined  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees.  The  air  current  enters  the 
tube  through  a  lantern  casting  just  below  the  lower  door.  A 
carrier  is  dispatched  by  placing  it  on  the  upper  door,  which  imme- 
diately swings  downward  and  to  one  side,  allowing  the  carrier  to  enter 
the  chamber  between  the  doors.  The  first  door  then  closes,  under  the 
force  of  a  counter-weight,  and  in  so  doing  moves  a  valve  that  admits  com- 
pressed air  from  the  tube  to  the  chamber,  thus  establishing  an  equal  pres- 
sure on  the  upper  and  lower  sides  of  the  second  door;  then  the  weight 
of  the  carrier  opens  the  second  door  and  the  carrier  slides  down  into  the 
tube,  to  be  driven  forward  by  the  air  current.  When  the  second  door 
closes,  after  the  carrier  has  passed,  it  moves  the  valve  that  admitted  com- 
pressed air  to  the  chamber,  back  to  its  original  position,  thereby  emptying 
the  chamber  in  readiness  to  receive  the  next  carrier.  The  gravity  trans- 
mitter has  become  the  standard  type  used  in  all  the  cities  where  tubes  have 
been  laid.  It  has  been  made  in  several  forms,  all  essentially  the  same 
in  principle,  differing  only  in  details  of  construction. 

All  transmitters  are  provided  with  a  timing  device  to  limit  the  fre- 
quency with  which  carriers  can  be  dispatched.  This  is  necessary  to  insure 
a  sufficient  time  for  the  receiver  to  discharge  one  carrier  before  the  next 
arrives.  The  timing  device  locks  the  transmitter  as  each  carrier  is  dis- 
patched and  keeps  it  locked  for  a  predetermined  time,  usually  between  ten 
and  fifteen  seconds.  Two  forms  of  timing  device  are  used,  one  measuring 
time  by  the  displacement  of  oil,  the  other  by  the  displacement  of  air.  The 
essential  principle  of  both  forms  is  a  loaded  piston  moving  up  and  down  in 
a  cylinder  as  each  carrier  passes  through  the  transmitter,  forcing  a  definite 
quantity  of  oil  or  air  through  an  orifice  that  can  be  adjusted  in  size  to  give 
the  required  time  interval.  Clocks  with  an  electrical  attachment  have  also 


338         PNEUMATIC    TUBES    FOE    TEANSPOETATION    OF    MAIL 

been  used  for  timing  devices,  with  the  advantage  of  greater  uniformity  in 
time  interval,  but  with  the  disadvantage  of  more  delicate  mechanism. 

Open  Receiver. — Open  receivers  have  been  made  of  two  radically  dif- 
ferent types.  One  arrests  the  carrier  by  means  of  an  air-cushion,  the 
other  by  friction  of  a  curved  chute  and  an  elastic  buffer  at  the  end.  In 
the  former,  the  end  of  the  tube  is  normally  closed  by  a  sliding  or  revolving 
gate.  The  air  current  leaves  the  tube  through  a  lantern  casting,  located 
about  twice  the  length  of  a  carrier  from  the  gate,  and  flows  through  a 
branch  pipe  to  the  atmosphere.  The  space  between  the  lantern  casting 
and  the  gate  forms  a  dead  end  into  which  the  carrier  runs,  compressing  the 
air  in  front  of  it  and  bringing  it  to  rest  without  shock.  The  compression 
of  the  air  in  the  dead-end  moves  a  valve  that  causes  the  gate  to  open,  then 
the  carrier  passes  out  on  to  a  receiving  table  and  the  gate  automatically 
closes  behind  it. 

In  the  second  type  of  open  receiver  the  end  of  the  tube  is  always  open, 
terminating  in  a  semi-circular  table  having  a  chute  along  the  outer  cir- 
cumference. The  by-pass,  through  which  the  air  current  leaves  the  tube, 
is  located  beneath  the  floor  on  which  the  receiver  stands,  about  12  or  15 
feet  from  the  open  end,  and  the  tube  from  the  by-pass  up  to  the  receiving 
table  is  formed  in  a  reverse  curve.  The  carrier,  after  passing  the  by-pass, 
being  no  longer  propelled  by  the  air  current,  is  gradually  brought  to  rest 
by  the  friction  of  the  curved  tube  and  the  circular  chute  of  the  table. 
The  air  current  is  deflected  through  the  by-pass  by  having  the  latter  con- 
nected to  the  suction  side  of  an  air  compressor  that  is  supplying  compressed 
air  to  another  tube  leading  out  of  the  station. 

Closed  Receiver. — The  closed  receiver  is  necessarily  a  more  elaborate 
piece  of  mechanism.  The  earliest  type  has  a  receiving  chamber  which 
forms  a  prolongation  of  the  tube  with  its  outer  end  closed.  The  air  cur- 
rent leaves  the  tube  through  a  lantern  casting  located  close  to  the  receiv- 
ing chamber,  so  that  the  later  forms  a  dead  end,  into  which  the  carrier 
runs  and  cushions  against  the  air  compressed  in  front  of  it,  as  in  the  first 
type  of  open  receiver.  The  receiving  chamber  is  mounted  on  trunnions 
and  arranged  to  be  tipped  up  to  allow  the  carrier  to  slide  out  backward. 
When -the  chamber  is  in  an  inclined  position,  that  allows  the  carrier 
to  slide  out,  the  end  of  the  tube  is  covered  by  a  curved  plate  attached  to* 
the  chamber.  The  receiving  chamber  is  moved  from  the  horizontal  to 
the  inclined  position  and  reverse  by  an  air  controlled  piston  and  cylinder, 
set  into  operation  by  the  arriving  carrier,  the  entire  movement  being 
automatic. 

The  latest  type  of  closed  receiver  consists  of  a  receiving  chamber  be- 


B.    C.    BATCHELLEE,   '86  339 

tween  two  gates,  the  first  normally  open  and  the  second  closed.  The  re- 
ceiving chamber  is  a  prolongation  of  the  tube,  forming  an  air  cushion 
to  stop  the  carriers,  as  is  the  first  type.  The  air  current  leaves  the  tube 
through  a  by-pass  located  close  to  the  first  gate.  When  a  carrier  arrives  in 
the  receiving  chamber,  it  moves  a  valve  that  admits  air  pressure  to  a 
cylinder  and  piston,  which  in  turn  closes  the  first  gate  and  then  opens  the 
second.  When  the.  second  gate  is  wide  open,  another  valve  is  moved  that 
admits  sufficient  compressed  air  into  the  receiving  chamber  behind  the  car- 
rier to  push  the  latter  out  on  to  a  table;  then  the  second  gate  closes,  the 
first  gate  opens  and  the  apparatus  is  ready  to  receive  the  next  carrier. 
The  air  pressure  available  to  operate  the  closed  receiver  is  sometimes  less 
than  two  pounds  per  square  inch,  which  necessitates  making  the  operating 
cylinder  large  in  diameter. 

Several  forms  of  the  double  gate  closed  receiver  have  been  used. 
One  was  made  with  sliding  gates,  two  others  with  revolving  gates,  and 
each  with  different  mechanism  to  operate  the  gates.  The  aim  of  all  de- 
signers has  been  to  make  a  closed  receiver  that  is  certain  in  the  delivery 
of  arriving  carriers ;  quick  in  its  movements,  to  insure  the  delivery  of  each 
carrier  before  the  next  arrives;  quiet  in  its  operation;  and  mechanically 
strong  to  withstand  the  severe  shocks  to  which  it  is  sometimes  subjected. 

AUTOMATIC  SWITCHING. 

There  is  one  great  problem  that  arises  in  the  mind  of  almost  every 
person  who  gives  the  subject  of  pneumatic  tube  transmission  any  thought. 
It  is  the  problem  of  automatic  switching.  Broadly,  it  may  be  defined  as 
the  problem  of  sending  a  carrier  automatically  from  any  station  on  a  net- 
work of  tubes  to  any  other  station;  or,  in  a  more  restricted  sense,  it  is 
the  problem  of  automatically  sending  a  carrier  from  a  main  tube  into  a 
branch,  and  vice  versa. 

The  problem  has  been  solved,  to  some  extent,  in  several  ways,  of 
which  there  are  practical  wording  examples,  but  as  broadly  defined,  its 
solution  is  impossible.  Some  of  the  conditions  that  make  it  impossible 
may  be  cited.  The  air  current  in  a  tube  cannot  be  divided  between  two 
tubes  and  maintain  the  same  velocity  in  each.  A  branch  tube  must  be 
operated  as  a  separate  air  circuit,  and  since  the  pressure  of  the  air  is 
usually  different  in  the  branch  and  main  line*  at  the  point  of  junction, 
the  carrier  must  pass  through  some  form  of  lock  or  gate  in  going  from  one 
to  the  other.  Automatic  gates  or  locks  are  hardly  practicable,  especially 
when  placed  underground.  Inside  buildings  the  space  for  tubes  and 


340         PNEUMATIC    TUBES    FOE    TRANSPORTATION    OF    MAIL 

machinery  is  usually  limited,  making  many  devices  which  are  theoreti- 
cally possible,  practically  impossible.  A  carrier,  in  order  to  select  its 
own  route,  must  be  provided  with  some  route  selecting  form  or  device,  such 
as  a  recess  or  projection  of  a  given  size  at  the  front  end,  and  there  must 
be  as  many  combinations  as  there  are  different  routes,  but  a  practical 
limit  to  the  possible  number  is  soon  reached.  Carriers  must  be  dispatched 
under  short  headway  to  give  the  tube  large  carrying  capacity,  and  all  au- 
tomatic devices  are  subject  to  the  liability  of  two  or  more  carriers  arriving 
together  instead  of  separately,  thereby  causing  complications.  When  a 
carrier  enters  a  main  line  from  a  branch,  there  is  the  risk  of  a  collision 
with  a  carrier  running  in  the  main  line.  If  it  is  necessary  to  stop  a  carrier 
in  transit,  it  must  be  done  gradually  to  avoid  destructive  shocks.  These 
are  a  few  of  the  requirements  and  limitations  that  must  be  recognized  in 
attempting  to  solve  the  problem,  and  many  more  might  be  mentioned. 

The 'first  line  of  mail  tubes  constructed  in  New  York  City  extended 
from  the  central  post  office  to  the  Grand  Central  Depot,  with  postal  sta- 
tion "  D  ",  "  Madison  Square  "  and  "  F  "  connected  as  intermediate  sta- 
tions. An  air  compressor  at  the  central  post  office  operated  the  north- 
bound tube,  and  an  air  compressor  at  Grand  Central  Depot  the  southbound 
tube.  The  three  intermediate  stations  were  equipped  with  automatic  se- 
lective receivers  and  with  transmitters  so  interlocked  with  the  receivers 
that  a  carrier  could  not  be  dispatched  for  an  interval  of  ten  or  fifteen  sec- 
onds after  a  carrier  had  gone  out  of  a  station.  In  this  way  a  sufficient 
time  interval  between  the  departure  of  carriers  from  each  station  was  main- 
tained, and  this  applied  to  through  as  well  as  dispatched  carriers.  In 
case  a  carrier,  due  to  a  lighter  load  or  larger  bearing  rings,  or  any  other 
cause,  gained  upon  one  ahead  of  it  until  the  time  interval  between  them 
was  less  than  the  allowable  amount,  then  upon  arrival  at  the  first  inter- 
mediate station  the  second  carrier  was  thrown  out,  to  be  redispatched  by 
hand,  if  it  was  destined  for  a  station  further  along  the  line. 

The  destination  of  a  carrier  was  determined  by  a  circular  metal 
disc  attached  to  the  front  end,  the  diameter  of  the  disc  determining  the 
stations  at  which  it  would  stop.  Since  there  were  three  intermediate 
stations,  the  discs  were  of  three  sizes  and  the  absence  of  a  disc  caused  the 
carrier  to  go  through  to  the  last  station.  The  discs  made  electric  contact 
in  the  receiver  at  the  station  at  which  it  was  to  stop,  thereby  determining 
its  selection. 

The  intermediate  station  receivers  arrested  the  carriers  by  an  air 
cushion  in  a  receiving  chamber.  The  arrival  of  a  carrier  in  the  chamber 
moved  a  valve  that  admitted  air  to  a  cylinder  and  piston,  which  revolved 


B.    0.    BATCHELLER,   >S6  341 

the  chamber  either  into  coincidence  with  an  opening  through  which  the 
carrier  passed  down  a  chute  to  a  table,  or  into  coincidence  with  an  open- 
ing leading  through  the  transmitter  to  the  outgoing  tube.  If  the  carrier, 
by  a  metal  disc  on  the  front  end,  made  electrical  contact  when  it  entered1 
the  receiving  chamber  of  the  receiver,  then  the  chamber  moved  into  posi- 
tion in  line  with  the  chute  and  the  carrier  passed  out  onto  the  receiving 
table.  If,  however,  no  electrical  contact  was  made,  then  the  chamber 
moved  into  position  in  line  with  the  transmitter,  and  the  carrier  passed 
out  into  the  outgoing  tube.  If  a  carrier  arrived  during  an  interval  of 
ten  or  fifteen  seconds  after  the  departure  of  a  carrier  from  the  station, 
the  receiving  chamber  moved  in  line  with  the  chute,  whether  or  not  elec- 
tric contact  had  been  made  by  the  arriving  carrier,  thereby  insuring  a  suffi- 
cient interval  between  all  out-going  carriers. 

CAHRIERS. 

Briefly  described,  the  carrier  for  an  8-inch  tube  has  a  cylindrical  body 
of  sheet  steel,  7  inches  diameter  and  23  inches  long.  The  forward  end 
is  closed  by  a  stamped  steel  cap  secured  to  the  body  by  soldering.  At- 
tached to  this  cap  on  the  outside  is  a  circular  buffer  of  felt,  which  absorbs 
the  energy  of  impact  when  the  carrier  runs  against  another  object.  The 
carrier  is  filled  and  emptied  through  the  rear  end,  which  is  provided  with 
a  tightly-fitting,  circular,  dished  lid  of  the  full  diameter  of  the  body.  The 
lid  is  attached  to  the  body  by  a  three-leaf  hinge  and  carries  a  simple  lock- 
ing device.  The  cylindrical  body  is  surrounded  by  two  bearing  rings, 
placed  at  such  distance  from  the  ends  as  will  allow  the  carrier  to  pass 
through  bends  in  the  tube.  The  bearing  rings,  on  which  the  carrier 
runs,  are  made  of  cotton  duck  and  rubber  compressed  under  heavy  pres- 
sure and  vulcanized.  They  are  held  in  place  by  steel  rings,  which  are 
soldered  to  the  body.  The  body,  front  cap,  lid  and  most  of  the  metal 
parts  are  coated  with  tin,  to  facilitate  soldering  and  to  prevent  oxidation. 
The  weight  of  the  carrier  is  about  20  pounds. 

The  requirements  of  a  satisfactory  carrier  are  numerous  and  exact- 
ing. To  mention  some  of  them:  It  must  be  strong,  to  withstand  the  rough 
usage  that  it  constantly  receives ;  it  must  be  light,  for  the  power  to  propel 
it,  the  labor  of  handling  it  and  the  energy  stored  in  it,  all  increase  di- 
rectly with  its  weight ;  when  closed  it  must  be  water-tight  to  protect  the 
contents  from  injury;  there  must  be  no  rivets,  nuts  or  other  small  parts 
that  can  become  detached,  to  remain  in  the  tube  and  obstruct  a  follow- 
ing carrier;  the  lock  that  secures  the  lid  in  the  closed  position  must  be 


342         PNEUMATIC    TUBES    FOB    TEANSPOETATION    OF    MAIL 

so  secure  that  the  carrier  cannot  open  in  transit  and  spill  its  contents; 
the  locking  mechanism  must  be  so  designed  that  the  carrier  cannot  be  put 
into  the  tube  when  it  is  unlocked;  the  manipulation  of  the  locking 
mechanism  must  be  simple,  to  facilitate  handling;  the  opening  through 
which  the  carrier  is  filled  and  emptied  must  be  large  and  unobstructed, 
otherwise  there  is  loss  in  time  and  labor;  and  the  bearing  rings  must 
have  a  low  coefficient  of  friction,  great  wearing  qualities,  be  noiseless  in  the 
tube,  and  be  unaffected  by  water,  oil  or  a  moderate  degree  of  heat. 

In  an  endeavor  to  meet  these  requirements,  many  carriers  have  been 
designed  during  the  past  eighteen  years,  and  those  most  promising  have 
been  made  and  tested.  To  have  a  carrier  open  during  transit  and  lose  its 
contents  in  the  tube  is  of  all  accidents  most  serious;  therefore,  most 
thought  has  been  given  to  designing  mechanism  for  securing  the  lid  in 
its  closed  position.  The  present  lock  is  simple, — altogether  the  best  that 
has  been  devised.  It  is  manipulated  by  a  lever  which  turns  on  a  pivot 
located  eccentrically  on  the  lid.  Due  to  this  eccentricity  the  lever  in  the 
unlocked  position  projects  beyond  the  circumference  of  the  lid,  and  pre- 
vents the  carrier  from  being  inserted  into  the  tube.  The  lever  cannot 
be  swung  to  the  locked  position  across  the  lid  unless  the  carrier  is  closed, 
which  prevents  locking  the  carrier  open.  The  lid  is  secured  to  the  body 
on  one  side  by  a  lug  that  projects  into  a  slot  milled  on  the  inside  of  the 
body,  and  on  the  other  side  by  a  cam  that  engages. a  projection  on  the 
leaf  of  the  hinge  that  is  riveted  to  the  body.  Thus  the  lid  is  secured  at 
two  opposite  points.  There  is  a  further  safety  device  in  a  spring  catch, 
which  locks  the  cam  and  lever  in  the  locked  position.  This  catch  is  re- 
leased by  pressing  a  button  on  the  lid.  The  cam  is  turned,  in  locking  and 
unlocking  the  carrier,  by  the  lever  on  the  outside. 

There  is  necessarily  more  or  less  moisture  in  the  tube;  a  little  oil 
finds  its  way  in  from  the  air  compressors  and  from  the  terminal  machinery ; 
sometimes  oil  or  water  is  put  into  the  tube  to  lubricate  the  carriers ;  dust 
is  drawn  in  with  the  air;  and  the  carrier-bearing  rings  wear  off  in  an  im- 
palpable powder.  The  presence  of  these  substances  in  the  tube  make  it 
necessary  to  have  the  carriers  close  tightly  in  order  to  protect  the  con- 
tents; therefore,  much  study  has  been  given  to  -designing  a  tight-fitting 
lid.  This  has  been  a  difficult  problem,  for  a  projecting  shoulder,  against 
which  a  lid  might  seal,  obstructs  the  opening  and  interferes  with  the  quick 
and  easy  removal  of  the  contents  of  the  carrier.  A  lid  with  a  rubber 
gasket  was  used  for. a  long  time,  but  it  finally  gave  way  to  a  metal  joint. 

The  bearing  rings  were  first  made  of  felt,  but  it  was  deficient  in 
wearing  qualities  and  was  displaced  by. rings  cut  from  cotton  belting.  These 


B.    C.    BATCHELLEE,  '86  343 

in  turn  were  superseded  by  rings  of  cotton  and  rubber  vulcanized.  Numer- 
ous methods  of  attaching  the  rings  to  the  carrier  body  have  been  tried, 
resulting  in  the  present  simple  method. 

Several  forms  of  buffer  have  been  used,  made  of  various  materials  and 
attached  in  different  ways  to  the  front  end  of  the  carrier,  security  being 
the  first  requirement. 

The  quality  of  steel  used  in  the  carrier  bodies  has  been  the  subject 
of  considerable  experiment.  The  advantages  of  a  high  carbon  steel  were 
recognized  from  the  beginning,  and  recently  some  of  the  new  special  steels 
have  been  tested.  All  purchases  are  now  made  to  specifications,  the 
quality  being  determined  by  chemical  analysis. 

TUBE  LINE  CONSTRUCTION. 

Any  person  can  imagine  the  difficulties  encountered  in  laying  pipes 
of  any  kind  in  the  streets  of  large  cities  at  the  present  day.  These  diffi- 
culties are  increasing  in  the  case  of  pneumatic  tubes,  by  the  necessity  of 
laying  them  nearer  to  a  straight  line  than  other  pipes,  all  changes  in  direc- 
tion being  limited  to  slight  deflections  at  the  joints,  and  to  standard  bends 
of  eight  feet  radius.  These  limitations  give  the  engineer  in  the  field  per- 
plexing problems  to  solve  at  almost  every  block.  In  only  one  city — Phil- 
adelphia— has  any  effort  been  made  to  keep  complete  records  of  all  under- 
ground construction;  therefore,  in  all  other  cities  in  selecting  a  loca- 
tion for  a  projected  line  of  tubes,  information  concerning  space  available 
beneath  the  surface  must  be  obtained  by  an  examination  of  the  street  and 
from  companies  that  have  underground  conduits  in  those  streets.  It  is 
customary  to  gather  all  possible  information  from  these  sources  and  compile 
it  by  making  sectional  elevations  at  frequent  intervals  along  the  route, 
and  plans  of  important  street  intersections.  The  greatest  difficulties  are 
usually  met  at  intersections  of  the  streets,  for  there  the  conduits  of 
two  streets  are  interlaced  and  a  large  amount  of  space  is  occupied  by 
vaults  that  give  access  to  the  electrical  conduits.  It  is  these  vaults  or  man- 
holes that  present  the  greatest  obstruction.  During  the  past  thirty  years 
many  conduits  for  electric  wires  have  been  put  down,  until  now  they  occupy 
more  space  than  the  gas  and  water  pipes.  In  order  to  draw  the  cables 
into  these  conduits,  it  has  been  necessary  -to  construct  manholes  at  every 
street  corner,  and  many  of  them  are  of  large  dimensions.  They  are 
constructed  by  the  Street  Eailway  Companies,  the  Electric  Light  and 
Power  Companies  and  the  Telephone  Companies.  Besides  these  there 
are  sewer  manholes  and  vaults  for  water  gates. 


344         PNEUMATIC    TUBES    FOE    TBANSPOBTATION    OF    MAIL 

The  .preliminary  information  that  can  be  gathered  from  all  sources  is 
usually  sufficient  to  determine  the  practicability  of  the  route  selected,  and 
which  side  of  the  street  offers  the  most  space,  but  the  exact  location  in  the 
street  can  only  be  determined  by  digging  test  holes,  usually  one  or  two 
in  each  block.  After  all  this  has  been  done  and  the  work  is  under  way,  it 
not  infrequently  happens  that  the  location  has  to  be  changed. 

A  trench  is  always  opened  across  the ,  intersecting  streets,  several 
hundred  feet  in  advance  of  the  point  at  which  the  tubes  are  being  laid,  for 
the  depth  at  which  they  can  be  laid  in  the  crossing  determines  their  depth  in 
the  adjoining  blocks.  Advantage  is  sometimes  taken  of  large  gas  or 
water  mains  to  get  through  the  intersections,  by  laying  the  tubes  at  the 
same,  elevation  as  the  main.  By  going  deep  enough,  there  is  always  space 
to  be  found  under  other  structures,  unless  tidewater  is  encountered,  but 
such  locations  are  difficult  to  lay  in  and  inaccessible  for  repairs.  Most 
of  the  conduits  are  placed  at  a  depth  of  four  or  five  feet,  and  on  many 
streets  in  New  York  City  these  are  so  close  together  that  it  was  necessary; 
to  take  up  a  gas  main  in  order  to  excavate  a  trench  beneath  it  in  which 
to  lay  the  tubes ;  then,  after  the  tubes  were  laid,  the  gas  main  was  replaced. 
The  major  portion  of  the  time  of  the  engineer  in  charge  of  laying  the 
tubes  is  taken  up  in  determining  the  depth  and  position  of  the  tubes. 
He  is  permitted  to  make  deflections  in  the  line  not  exceeding  1%  inches 
in  twelve  feet,  and  he  becomes  very  skilful  in  computing  the  deflections 
that  will  enable  him  to  avoid  obstructions;  for  it  is  a  rule  in  laying 
pneumatic  tubes  that  bends  are  only  to  be  used  where  it  is  impossible  to 
lay  straight  lengths. 

Every  length  of  tube  is  laid  with  a  surveyor's  level  and  rod.  A  re- 
cord is  kept  of  the  elevations,  the  elevation  of  the  street,  and  the  distance 
of  the  center  of  the  tubes  from  the  curb,  which  information  is  afterwards 
used  in  making  record  plans. 

The  care  and  accuracy  with  which  these  plans  have  been  made  makes 
them  invaluable  for  future  reference.  It  is  customary  to  show  on  the 
plans  not  only  the  tubes,  but  all  other  sub-surface  structures  that  have 
been  uncovered  in  proximity  to  them.  About  every  six  blocks  a  manhole 
is  constructed,  which  gives  access  to  the  tubes. 

Not  all  of  the  tubes  are  laid  beneath  the  ground.  A  double  line  ex- 
tends from  the  central  post  office  in  New  York  City  to  the  central  post 
office  in  the  borough  of  Brooklyn,  across  the  Brooklyn  Bridge.  The  tubes 
on  the  bridge  are  supported  in  saddles,  which  rest  on  the  cross  beams. 
The  bridge  structure  is  very  flexible  and  is  deflected  several  inches  by 
the  passage  of  each  train  or  trolley  car,  and  since  there  is  a  continuous 


B.    C.    BATCHELLER,   '86  345 

procession  of  them,,  it  is  in  constant  motion.  As  a  result  of  the  move- 
ments of  the  bridge,  considerable  difficulty  has  been  found  in  keeping 
the  joints  of  the  tubes  tight.  They  are  calked  with  lead,  which  gradually 
works  loose,  necessitating  frequent  recalking.  Ten  years  after  the  line 
was  put  down,  it  became  necessary  to  relay  the  entire  part  on  the  bridge. 
Usually  it  is  thought  necessary  to  lay  the  tubes  with  a  cover  of  two  or  three 
feet  of  earth  to  prevent  the  moisture  that  condenses  in  them  from  freezing, 
but  here  are  two  tubes  nearly  a  mile  in  length,  suspended  high  up  in  the 
air,  exposed  to  the  elements  without  covering,  and  only  once  or  twice  in 
cold  weather  has  there  been  any  trouble  from  ice  forming  inside  them, 
and  then  the  trouble  was  of  short  duration. 

To  prevent  leaky  joints,  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  good  foundation  to 
support  the  tubes.  If  they  settle  unequally,  as  they  frequently  do  when 
laid  in  soft  ground,  leaks  result,  and  they  increase  in  number  as  time  goes 
on.  The  greatest  source  of  trouble  of  this  kind  is  the  digging  up  of 
the  streets  by  owners  of  other  conduits.  They  undermine  the  tubes, 
and,  although  they  support  them  temporarily,  they  do  not  ram  the  earth 
back  as  solidly  as  it  was  originally. 


MANAGEMENT  AND  OPERATION. 

In  the  development  of  the  pneumatic  tube  system,  besides  the  prob- 
lems of  design  and  construction,  there  have  been  many  problems  of  organi- 
zation and  operation.  These  latter  problems  have  presented  themselves, 
one  after  the  other,  as  the  systems  have  been  extended.  Details  that  are 
of  relatively  small  importance  in  the  smaller  systems  of  Chicago  and 
Boston  require  special  consideration  in  the  larger  system  of  New  York. 

The  great  problem  of  the  operating  staff  is  to  maintain  continuous 
service  in  a  network  of  tubes,  spread  as  in  New  York,  over  an  area  of  fifteen 
square  miles.  With  employes  scattered  in  twenty- five  separate  stations, 
the  telephone  plays  such  an  important  part  that  it  is  difficult  to  imagine 
how  the  system  could  be  operated  without  it. 

Each  station  is  connected  to  a  central  switchboard,  located  at  Station 
"  G  ",  Fifty-first  Street,  near  Broadway.  The  switchboard  operator  is 
the  chief  operator  of  the  entire  system,  from  whom  all  the  other  operators 
at  the  stations  receive  their  orders.  Before  the  service  begins  at  four 
o'clock  in  the  morning,  it  is  the  first  duty  of  every  operator  to  report  by 
telephone  to  the  Chief.  In  case  an  operator  does  not  report,  the  Chief 
knows  that  he  is  not  at  his  post,  and  orders  a  substitute  to  take  his  place.1 


'346         PNEUMATIC    TUBES    FOE    TEANSPOETATION    OF    MAIL 

Before  receiving  orders  to  shut  down  at  night,  each  operator  is  required 
to  report  by  telephone  to  the  Chief  the  receipt  and  dispatch  of  his  last 
carriers.  In  this  way  the  Chief  knows  when  the  last  dispatch  of  mail  has 
reached  its  destination,  and  he  can  then  order  the  system  shut  down  with 
reasonable  certainty  that  no  carriers  are  left  in  the  tubes. 

In  case  of  trouble  at  any  station,  the  fact  is  at  once  reported  by  tele- 
phone to  the  Chief.  If  it  is  some  slight  irregularity  in  the  "operation  of 
the  terminal  apparatus,  the  Chief,  by  questioning  the  operator,  may  be 
able  to  tell  him  how  to  correct  it ;  or,  if  the  case  demands  assistance,  an 
inspector  can  be  instantly  ordered  to  the  station.  Should  it  prove  to  be 
a  serious  block,  then  the  necessary  orders,  such  as  "  stop  sending,"  "  shut 
down","  "  reverse  pressure/'  "  increase  pressure,"  "  put  on  vacuum,"  "  re- 
move a  bend,"  and  other  similar  orders,  are  quickly  given  by  telephone, 
making  it  possible  to  clear  a  blocked  line  in  five  or  ten  minutes,  that 
without  the  telephone  could  not  be  cleared  in  several  hours.  Frequently 
when  a  line  is  blocked,  orders  are  Issued  by  telephone  to  dispatch  mail  by 
another  tube  route,  thereby  avoiding  delays  to  the  mail  that  would  other- 
wise occur.  Ordinarily  the  dispatch  of  mail  is  not  subject  to  the  orders 
of  the  Chief  Operator.  It  is  his  duty  to  keep  the  system  running,  to 
keep  a  sufficient  number  of  operators  at  their  posts,  and  to  maintain  a 
proper  distribution  of  carriers,  all  of  which  he  does  by  telephone. 

The  distribution  of  carriers  is  a  most  important  duty  of  the  Chief 
Operator.  About  1,900  carriers  are  used  in  New  York.  The  amount 
of  mail  dispatched  and  received  at  some  stations  is  much  more  than  at 
others,  and  the  times  of  sending  and  receiving  are  irregular.  If  no  effort 
were  made  to  keep  the  carriers  distributed,  there  would  soon  be  an  accumu- 
lation at  some  stations  and  a  scarcity  at  others.  This  trouble  would  be 
augmented  by  the  propensity  of  operators  to  hold  carriers  against  theii 
needs  for  heavy  dispatches.  The  Chief  at  the  switchboard  keeps  constantly 
informed  by  inquiry  of  the  number  of  carriers  at  the  different  stations, 
and  where  there  is  a  scarcity  he  has  it  supplied  by  ordering  empty  carriers; 
sent  from  stations  that  are  over-stocked;  but  empty  carriers  occupy  space 
in  the  tube  and  reduce  its  mail  carrying  capacity;  therefore,  the  aim  of 
the  Chief  Operator  must  be  to  so  distribute  the  carriers  that  the  least  pos- 
sible number  of  empties  will  be  sent  through  the  tubes  during  busy  hours. 
This  is  accomplished  by  storing  carriers  at  stations  where  they  will  be 
required  for  heavy  dispatches,  and  having  empties  sent  only  during  hours 
when  little  mail  is  being  transported. 

Tube  capacity  is  the  quantity  of  letters  that  can  be "  transported  per 
unit  of  time,  and  tube  efficiency  may  be  defined  as  the  percentage  of  total 


B.    C.    BATCHELLER,   '86  347 

capacity  that  is  utilized.  High  efficiency  is  as  important  in  pneumatic 
tube  management  as  in  other  business  enterprises. 

The  majority  of  business  letters  are  dictated  in  the  morning,  written 
during  the  day,  signed  in  the  latter  part  of  the  afternoon,  posted  when  the 
office  closes,  and  collected  from  the  boxes  between  five  and  six-thirty.  Thus 
the  bulk  of  the  outgoing  mail  is  handled  by  the  post  office  in  the  after- 
noon and  evening.  On  the  other  hand,  the  bulk  of  the  incoming  mail  ar- 
rives in  the  morning.  A  large  number  of  trains  from  remote  cities  arrive 
about  daybreak,  bringing  heavy  mails,  and  there  is  an  accumulation  of 
local  mail  over  night  to  go  out  in  the  first  dispatch  in  the  morning.  These 
are  fixed  conditions  that  cannot  be  changed;  therefore,  the  tubes  should 
have  capacity  to  meet  these  conditions,  i.e.,  to  carry  the  heavy  mails  of  the 
morning  and  evening  hours.  When  these  conditions  have  been  satisfied 
the  tubes  will  be  used  far  below  their  capacity  during  other  hours  of  the 
day,  and  the  total  efficiency  will  be  low. 

Tube  capacity  is  affected  by  the  distribution  of  carriers,  the  total 
number  used  on  the  system,  and  by  the  density  of  loading.  If  it  is  neces- 
sary to  send  empty  carriers  through  a  busy  line,  to  supply  some  station, 
those  carriers  cut  down  the  efficiency  of  that  line.  Had  the  needs  of  that 
station  been  anticipated  in  a  preceding  dull  period,  good  management 
would  have  increased  the  efficiency  of  the  system  and  that  line  in  particular. 
A  shortage  of  carriers  on  the  entire  system  necessitates  the  more  frequent 
dispatching  of  empty  carriers,  and,  therefore,  reduces  the  efficiency.  The 
number  of  letters  placed  in  the  carriers,  or  density  of  loading,  directly 
affects  the  efficiency  of  the  system.  It  is  always  possible  to  get  more  letters 
into  a  carrier  than  are  put  in  in  the  ordinary  course  of  operation,  but  the 
carriers  are  loaded  by  the  postal  clerks,  who  are  not  employes  of  the  tube 
company,  giving  the  company  no  control  over  this  important  factor.  It 
takes  more  time  and  labor  to  pack  carriers  tightly,  so  there  is  a  tendency 
on  the  part  of  the  clerks  to  fill  them  loosely.  There  are,  of  course,  times 
when  the  quantity  of  mail  to  be  sent  is  insufficient  to  fill  the  carriers  and 
the  mail  cannot  be  delayed  to  secure  a  load,  for  that  would  defeat  the 
purpose  of  the  tube.  As  a  result,  it  is  found  that  the  density  of  loading 
varies  during  the  hours  of  the  day  somewhat  in  proportion  to  the  quantity 
of  mail  handled,  being  greatest  in  the  afternoon  and  evening,  and  least  in 
the  forenoon. 

Tube  capacity  is  affected  by  the  geographical  location  of  the  stations 
and  the  manner  in  which  they  are  connected  by  tube  lines.  When  a  num- 
ber of  intermediate  stations  are  connected  to  a  line  through  which  there 
is  heavy  traffic  between  the  terminal  stations,  the  frequency  of  dispatch  is 


348         PNEUMATIC    TUBES    FOE    TKANSPOBTATION    OF    MAIL 

less  than  it  would  be  on  a  trunk  line  between  the  terminal  stations.  Take, 
for  example,  the  southbound  tube  from  the  Grand  Central  station  to  the 
central  post  office  in  New  York.  There  are  three  intermediate  stations, 
"  F,"  "  Madison  Square "  and  "  D."  Probably  87  per  cent  of  the  mail 
dispatched  at  the  Grand  Central  goes  to  the  central  post  office.  Assume 
that  the  interval  of  dispatch  at  the  Grand  Central  is  sixteen  seconds,  at 
Station  "  F  "  it  should  be  fourteen  seconds,  to  allow  that  station  to  send 
carriers  without  delaying  those  coming  from  Grand  Central ;  at  "  Madison 
Square "  station  it  should  be  twelve  seconds,  and  at  Station  "  D "  ten 
seconds.  If  there  were  no  intermediate  stations,  carriers  could  be  dis- 
patched on  10-second  intervals  from  Grand  Central,  or  31  per  cent  more 
carriers  could  be  sent.  Thus  87  per  cent  of  all  the  mail  sent  through  this 
tube  is  being  delayed  more  or  less  to  permit  the  intermediate  stations  to 
send  their  13  per  cent.  This,  of  course,  does  not  hold  true  where  the 
bulk  of  the  mail  is  taken  up  and  distributed  at  intermediate  stations. 

If,  instead  of  connecting  sub-stations  to  trunk  lines,  they  are  con- 
nected by  independent  lines  to  more  important  central  stations,  and  the 
central  stations  are  connected  by  trunk  lines  without  intermediate 
stations;  in  other  words,  if  stations  are  connected  by  a  radial  system, 
greater  tube  capacity  is  secured.  The  geographical  configuration  of  New 
York  City,  the  concentration  of  business  in  the  southern  end  of  the  island, 
and  the  location  of  the  principal  railway  stations  in  the  center,  are  condi- 
tions that  have  produced  long  tube  circuits  with  numerous  intermediate 
stations,  instead  of  a  radiating  system  such  as  developed  in  Philadelphia 
and  Boston  on  a  smaller  scale. 

The  interval  of  dispatch,  or  time-lock  interval,  having  a  direct  effect 
upon  the  tube  capacity,  becomes  an  important  detail  in  tube  management. 
It  is  determined  by  many  conditions.  On  a  short  line  equipped  with  semi- 
circular open  receivers,  such  as  are  used  in  some  of  the  Philadelphia  sta- 
tions, and  with  no  intermediate  station,  carriers  can  be  sent  at  six  seconds, 
or  about  as  fast  as  they  can  be  handled.  Where  gate  receivers  are  used,  the 
interval  should  be  longer,  say  eight  or  ten  seconds,  to  insure  against  one 
carrier  overtaking  another  in  the  tube.  If  a  line  is  very  long,  the  time  of 
transit  is  correspondingly  long,  and  the  time-lock  interval  should  be 
adjusted  accordingly.  It  has  already  been  explained  how  the  intervals 
must  be  graduated  at  intermediate  stations,  but  allowance  has  to  be  made 
for  the  manner  in  which  the  mail  is  distributed  among  the  stations.  Gen- 
erally speaking,  the  interval  varies  between  six  and  sixteen  seconds. 

The  large  number  of  carriers  used,  and  the  hard  service  to  which  they 
are  subjected,  makes  the  carrier  maintenance  account  an  important  one  in 


B.    C.    BATCHELLEB,    '86  349 

the  total  expense  of  operating  the  tubes.  Carriers  are  sent  to  the  repair 
shop  daily  for  minor  repairs,  and  then  put  back  into  service;  but  when 
the  bearing  rings  are  worn  down  to  a  diameter  of  about  one-quarter  of  an 
inch  smaller  than  the  tube,  all  the  carriers  are  removed  from-~ser.vi.ee  and 
an  entire  new  set  with  full  size  rings  is  put  on.  In  New  York,  where 
1,900  carriers  constitute  a  set,  this  change  takes  place  once  in  about  nine 
months.  Carriers  will  travel  from  12,000  to  15,000  miles  on  one  pair  of 
bearing  rings,  and  they  wear  out,  on  an  average,  two  pairs  of  rings  before 
being  condemned  to  the  scrap  heap. 

ACCOMPLISHMENTS. 

The  purpose  of  the  tubes  is  to  save  time  in  the  transmission  of  the 
mails  between  the  central  post  office,  branch  stations  and  railway  depots; 
also  to  give  a  more  uniform  and  reliable  service  than  can  be  secured  by 
vehicles  running  on  the  surface  of  the  street.  This  they  accomplish  in  sev- 
eral ways.  First  of  all,  the  speed  of  transit  is  higher  than  any  other  means 
used.  The  speed  of  the  carriers  between  stations  is  thirty  miles  per  hour, 
but  the  average  speed  between  remote  stations  necessarily  falls  considerably 
below  this,  due  to  the  delays  of  redispatching  at  intermediate  stations.  The 
committee  appointed  by  the  Postmaster  General  in  1908,  to  investigate 
the  system,  states  in  its  report :  "  A  number  of  tests  were  made  in  the  sev- 
eral cities  to  ascertain  the  actual  speed  by  tube  in  miles  per  hour  in  trans- 
mission between  the  central  post  office  and  the  several  other  stations  in  each 
city,  with  the  following  results : 

City  Minimum  Maximum 

Boston    ; 14.7  25.1 

New    York     17.5  30.7 

Brooklyn     28.2  30.0 

Philadelphia     25.3  29.5 

Chicago     24.S  30.0 

St.    Louis    25.5  30.0 

The  contract  speed  for  transportation  of  mails  by  wagons  ranges  from 
three  to  five  miles  per  hour,  for  street  car  service  not  more  than  eight  or 
ten  miles  per  hour,  and  the  maximum  permissible  speed  for  automobiles 
in  cities  is  from  six  to  twelve  miles  per  hour.  The  actual  average  speed  of 
surface  traffic  in  congested  streets  is  far  below  these  figures,  so  that  it  is 
safe  to  say  that  the  speed  of  pneumatic  tube  transmission  is  several  times 
greater  than  any  other  means  thus  far  used.  It  is  by  no  means  limited 
to  thirty  miles  per  hour,  but  the  expenditure  of  power  is  out  of  all  propor- 
tion to  the  increase  in  speed  when  much  higher  rates  are  secured,  particu- 
larly when  the  distance  between  power  stations  is  great.  In  comparing  the 


350         PNEUMATIC    TUBES    FOE    TEANSPOETATION    OF    MAIL 

speed  of  carriers  by  tube  with  the  speed  of  wagons  or  trolley  cars,  it  mast 
be  remembered  that  the  former  is  computed  between  the  terminals,  which 
are  located  in  the  post  offices,  while  the  latter  is  computed  between  the  plat- 
forms outside  the  post  offices,  or,  in  the  case  of  trolley  cars,  between  the 
points  at  which  they  stop  nearest  the  post  office  buildings.  Considerable 
time  is  consumed  after  the  mails  are  pouched,  in  carrying  or  trucking  the 
pouches  to  the  wagons  outside  the  buildings,  and  at  the  other  end  of  the 
route  in  carrying  or  trucking  them  into  the  buildings.  The  same  is  true 
in  a  greater  degree  of  the  street  car  service.  This  should  be  added  to  the 
time  of  transit  between  post  offices. 

The  frequency  of  tube  service  between  postal  stations  results  in  the 
saving  of  much  time.  Carriers  go  and  come  at  intervals  of  ten  to  fifteen 
seconds,  whereas  the  most  frequent  wagon  service  is,  as  a  rule,  half  hourly. 
This  is  as  a  hundred  and  fifty  to  one;  but  in  making  such  a  comparison, 
the  difference  in  capacity  of  the  tube  carrier  and  the  wagon  should  be  given 
some  consideration;  also  the  fact  that  ordinary  letters  are  not  forwarded 
singly.  It  is  difficult  to  say  just  how  much  advantage  the  tube  has  over 
the  wagon  on  account  of  greater  frequency  of  dispatch,  but  we  know  it  is 
considerable,  and  undoubtedly  results  in  a  large  percentage  of  the  incoming 
mail  being  distributed  one  delivery  earlier.  There  is  also  a  decided  gain 
for  outgoing  mail,  since  it  can  leave  the  office  as  soon  as  it  is  made  up  with- 
out waiting  for  a  wagon. 

Frequency  of  dispatch  by  tube  is  of  greatest  value  in  hastening  the 
delivery  of  special  letters,  which  are  forwarded  immediately,  without  wait- 
ing for  the  closing  of  regular  mails.  Within  the  tube  area  "  special  de- 
livery" letters  can  be  transmitted  as  quickly  as  telegrams,  and  the  knowl- 
edge of  this  fact  by  the  public  generally  should  result  in  an  increased  use 
of  these  letters.  It  is  difficult  to  obtain  statistics  that  show  to  what  extent 
the  sending  of  "  special  delivery  "  letters  has  increased  since  the  advent  of 
the  tubes,  but  not  so  much  as  it  would  if  the  general  public  knew  that  their 
letters  are  sent  by  tube.  There  seems  to  be  no  desire  on  the  part  of  the 
post  office  to  advertise  its  facilities.  If  a  "special  delivery"  letter  for 
local  delivery  is  mailed  in  a  tube  station,  it  is  forwarded  at  once  by  tube  to. 
the  station  nearest  to  the  address,  and  is  then  delivered  by  a  messenger. 
The  average  time  of  delivering  such  letters  within  the  tube  area  should  not 
exceed  thirty  minutes.  The  "special  delivery"  service  is  not  limited  to 
letters,  but  extends  also  to  parcels. 

Frequency  of  dispatch  has  the  advantage  of  giving  more  uniform  em- 
ployment to  the  postal  clerks.  Under  the  old  system,  when  a  wagon  arrived 
at  an  office,  there  was  a  rush  on  the  part  of  the  clerks  to  distribute  the  mail, 


B.    C.    BATCHELLER,   '86  351 

followed  by  a  lull  until  the  arrival  of  the  next  wagon.  Under  the  tube 
system  the  mail  is  received  in  an  almost  continuous  stream,  and  is  dis- 
tributed much  quicker. 

The  tube  service  expedites  a  considerable  portion  of  the  railway  mail, 
both  incoming  and  outgoing,  particularly  the  latter,  by  rapid  and  frequent 
service  between  post  offices  and  railway  stations.  The  conditions  here  are 
somewhat  different  than  in  the  service  between  post  office  stations,  for  the 
reason  that  the  mails  arrive  and  leave  at  infrequent  intervals  in  large  bulk. 

The  outgoing  mail  accumulates  at  the  central  and  other  post  offices 
until,  say,  three-quarters  of  an  hour  before  the  time  of  departure  of  the 
train,  when  the  regular  mail  closes.  It  is  then  sent  by  tube  to  the  railway 
depot.  Fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  or  half  an  hour,  depending  upon  cir- 
cumstances, after  closing  the  regular  mail,  a  supplementary  mail  is  made 
up  and  sent  by  tube  to  the  depot,  arriving  there  just  before  the  departure 
of  the  train.  The  high  speed  of  the  tube  service  and  its  freedom  from  de- 
lays make  it  possible  to  close  the  regular  mails  from  fifteen  minutes  to  an 
hour  later,  depending  upon  the  distance  from  the  post  office  to  the  railway 
depot,  than  would  be  possible  if  the  mail  were  transported  by  wagons,  and 
it  gives  a  supplementary  service  that  brings  the  final  closing  within  a  few 
minutes  of  the  departure  of  the  train.  It  is  not  possible  to  state  what 
percentage  of  the  mail  is  thus  expedited  by  the  tube,  but  from  the  habit 
many  people  have  of  mailing  their  letters  at  the  last  moment,  it  must  be 
considerable.  The  failure  of  a  letter  to  make  connection  with  a  train,  in 
many  cases  results  in  a  delay  of  a  day  in  reaching  its  destination,  and  in 
any  case  a  delay  until  the  departure  of  the  next  mail  train.  In  the  case 
of  trains  that  connect  with  ocean  steamers,  failure  to  reach  the  train  may 
result  in  several  days'  delay. 

Incoming  mails  arrive  by  train  at  the  depot,  where  they  are  unpouchcd 
and  sent  by  tube  to  the  post  offices.  At  first  thought  it  may  seem  to  be  a 
disadvantage  to  open  the  pouches  at  the  depot  in  order  to  transport  the 
mail  by  tube  when  it  could  be  transported  in  bulk  by  wagon.  If  the 
ultimate  object  were  to  get  the  mail  to  the  post  office,  rather  than  get  the 
individual  letters  to  the  persons  to  whom  they  are  addressed,  this  would  be 
true,  but  the  pouches  have  to  be  opened  somewhere  in  order  to  distribute 
the  mail,  and  it  can  be  done  as  well  at  the  railway  depot  as  at  the  post 
office.  If  the  mail  were  sent  by  wagon  to  the  post  office,  distribution 
could  not  begin  until  the  entire  bulk  arrived,  whereas  in  sending  it  by 
tube  it  begins  to  arrive,  and  consequently  distribution  begins  much  earlier. 
As  a  result,  a  considerable  portion  of  the  mail  is  sent  out  one  delivery 
earlier  than  would  be  possible  with  wagon  transportation. 


THE  CONTINUOUS  COOLING  OF  CIRCULATING  WATER  USED 
FOR  CONDENSING  STEAM. 

By  EDWARD  F.  MILLER,  '86, 
Professor  of  Steam  Engineering,  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology. 

WHENEVER  possible  large  power  plants  are  located  near  a  river  or  near 
tide  water,  in  order  to  obtain  an  abundant  supply  of  condensing  water; 
in  many  cases,  however,  plants  have  to  be  located  where  there  is  either  no 
supply  or  but  a  limited  supply  of  water  which  could  be  used  for  condens- 
ing purposes.  In  such  cases  if  the  plant  is  to  be  run  condensing,  it  be- 
comes necessary  to  cool  the  condensing  water  which  has  been  used  in  the 
condensers  so  that  it  may  be  used  over  and  over  again.  Some  of  the 
various  devices  for  cooling  the  water  are 

1.  Cooling   towers. 

2.  Spray  nozzles. 

3.  Cooling  ponds. 

4.  Spray   Nozzles   combined  with   cooling   ponds. 

In  every  case  with  the  exception  of  the  "cooling  ponds  "  the  greater  part 
of  the  cooling  is  done  through  the  evaporation  of  a  small  part  of  the 
water  circulated,  each  pound  of  water  evaporated  taking  approximately 
1,000  heat  units  from  the  water  left. 

The  weight  of  moisture  which  will  be  required  to  saturate  a  cubic 
foot  of  dry  air  or  which  will  occupy  one  cubic  foot,  can  be  calculate^ 
accurately  from  any  reliable  tables  giving  the  properties  of  saturated 
steam.  (Peabody,  published  by  Wiley,  or  Marks  and  Davis,  published  by 
Longmans.) 

The  curved  line  (Fig.  1)  was  computed  by  taking  from  the  "steam 
table  "  values  representing  the  reciprocal  of  the  volume  of  one  pound  of 
steam  at  the  different  temperatures.  Reading  from  the  plot  it  is  evident 
that  at  66°,  .0010  Ibs.  is  required  to  saturate  a  cubic  foot  of  dry  air  and 
at  130°,  .0063  Ibs. 

If  air  at  66°  was  70  per  cent  saturated,  or  had  a.  relative  humidity 
of  70,  then  the  amount  of  moisture  in  a  cubic  foot  of  such  air  would  bo 

352 


EDWARD    F.    MILLER,   '86 


353 


.7  X  -001  =  .0007,  and  if  the  air  was  saturated  at  130°  the  additional 
amount  taken  up  would  be  .0063  —  .0007  =  .0056. 


COOLING  TOWERS. 

Probably  cooling  towers  are  used  to  a  greater  extent  for  cooling  water 
than  spray  nozzles  or  cooling  ponds,  although  spray  nozzles  are  coming 
into  frequent  use  now  that  engineers  know  more  about  this  method  of 


1 

1070 
1060 

1 

1050(2 
1040.2 
1030  & 
1020  1 
1010 

0° 

.0070 
.0060 
.OOoO 
.0040 
.0030 
.0020 
.0010 

°4 

s^ 

/ 

^ 

s^ 

/ 

/ 

^ 

s^ 

/ 

\ 

^ 

/ 

\ 

^ 

/ 

^s 

^ 

/ 

7 

N 

\ 

/ 

^ 

X 

> 

/ 

' 

X 

x 

x 

X 

\ 

X 

^ 

^ 

^ 

^ 

^ 

*^ 

^ 

•                   •* 

_  i  •* 

—  " 

^ 

— 

0            50            60            70            80            90           100           110          120          130          14 
Temperature  of  Air 

FIG.  1 

cooling.  Many  articles  have  been  written  on  cooling  tower  construction, 
while  but  few  have  been  written  on  the  method  of  calculating  the  cool- 
ing produced  by  a  tower. 

The  amount  of  water  surface  in  a  cooling  tower  varies  from  23  to  27 
sq.  ft.  per  I.H.P.  More  surface  is  needed  in  a  natural  draft  tower  than 
in  a  fan  tower.  The  amount  of  air  needed  depends  to  a  large  extent  upon 
the  humidity  of  the  air  entering  the  tower  and  upon  the  temperature  of 
the  water  entering  the  tower.  The  air  leaving  the  tower  is  generally 
saturated. 

It  is  not  advisable  to  send  an  abnormal  amount  of  air  through  a  tower 
as  the  cost  of  the  increased  power  needed  to  run  the  fan  and  the  greater 


354         THE    CONTINUOUS    COOLING    OF    CIRCULATING   WATER 

shrinkage  due  to  evaporation  may  amount  to  more  than  the  gain  made  by 
the  increased  vacuum  on  the  engine. 

The  materials  used  inside  of  the  cooling  tower  for  exposing  as  large 
a  surface  of  cooling  water  as  possible  to  contact  with  the  air,  without 
at  the  same  time  obstructing  the  free  flow  of  air,  are  tiers  of  tile  pipes, 
galvanized  iron  wire  screens  set  nearly  vertical,  galvanized  iron  troughs  set 
horizontally,  and  arranged  so  that  the  water  flows  from  trough  to  trough 
as  it  descends,  boards,  brush  or  other  material. 

The  amount  of  air  to  be  supplied  to  a  tower  and  the  shrinkage  of 
water  from  evaporation  may  be  calculated  with  sufficient  accuracy  from  the 
following  equations: 

W  =  weight  of  cooling  water  entering  condenser  per  Ib.  of  steam. 
E  =  weight  evaporated  from  tower  per  pound  of  steam  condensed. 
Ve  =  cu.ft.  of  cold  air  entering  tower  per  Ib.  of  steam  condensed.    This 
air  may  enter  by  natural   draft,  or  as  is  most  often   the  case,  it 
may  be  sent  in  by  a  fan. 
Vh  =  cu.ft.  of  hot  air  leaving  tower  per  Ib.  of  steam  condensed. 


Tc 

The  weight  of  air  entering  the  tower  may  be  figured  thus: — 

Vc_  Vc 

29.93X12.39  Tc  Tc 

491.5"  P.         ™P~C 

T  =  absolute  temperature  of  air  entering. 
Pc  =  absolute  pressure  of  air  entering  tower  in  ins.  of  mercury. 
If  the  excess  pressure  of  the  air  entering  the  tower  is  measured  by 
the  difference  of  water   level  in  U-tube,  Pc   equals   the   sum  of   the  bar- 
ometric reading  and  ^-^-  times  the  difference  of  water  level. 

• 

In  nearly  every  case  Pc  varies  so  little  from  the  reading  of  the  bar- 
ometer that  the  barometic  height  in  inches  of  mercury  may  be  substituted 
for  it. 

Qh  and  Qc  are  the  heats  of  the  liquid  coresponding  to  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  hot  and  the  cold  condensing  water. 


EDWAED    F.    MILLEE,   '86  355 

Th  =  the  absolute  temperature  of  the  air  leaving  the  tower,  12.39  = 
specific  volume  of  air. 


vc 

.75 


PC 

v. 


~ i -: —  X  relative  humidity. \ 
Sp.  vol.  steam  at         Sp.  vol.  steam  at 

temp.  air  at  top.      temp,  air  at  bottom. 

th  and  tc  are  temperatures  of  air  at  top  of  tower  and  at  entrance  to  tower. 
r  is  the  heat  of  evaporation  corresponding  to  the  temperature  at  top  of 
tower. 

V  V 

E  =  a- Q y—  -X relative  humidity. 

op.  vol.  steam,  at          op.  vol.  steam  at 

temp,  air  at  top.      temp,  air  at  bottom. 

In  the  case  of  a  jet  condenser  the  steam  condensed  adds  one  pound  to 
each  W  pounds  of  cooling  water  entering  the  condenser. 

If  E  is  greater  than  one  pound  then  the  excess  must  be  supplied 
as  make-up  water. 

For  a  surface  condenser  E  represents  the  make-up  water. 

The  results  of  calculations  for  two  surface  condensers,  one  with  28" 
vacuum  and  the  other  with  26"  vacuum  are  shown  graphically  by  Fig.  2. 
It  is  to  be  noted  that  for  the  28"  vacuum  two  and  one-half  times  as  much 
air  and  twice  as  much  water  as  were  needed  for  the  26"  vacuum  are  now 
required.  It  is  evident  from  the  plot  that  the  amount  of  heat  taken  up  in 
the  heating  of  the  air  was  about  the  same  for  any  one  case,  no  matter  what 
the  humidity  may  have  been. 


PER  CENT  OF  ENGINE  POWER  EEQUIRED  BY  COOLING  TOWER  FAN  AND  BY 
THE  EXTRA  DISCHARGE  HEAD  ON  THE  CIRCULATING  WATER  DUE  TO 
THE  TOWER. 

Eef erring  to  a  case  with  relative  humidity  of  80,  455  cu.ft.  of  air 
were  found  to  be  needed.  Suppose  a  disc  fan  is  to  be  used  and  a  dynamic* 
head  of  .3"  of  water  maintained  at  the  fan.  As  the  static  head  is  zero 
the  velocity  head  will  be  .3".  This  corresponds  at  70°  to  a  velocity  of 
23200  ft.  per  min.  Suppose  that  the  main  engine  uses  14  Ibs.  of  steam  per 


356          THE    CONTINUOUS    COOLING    OF    CIRCULATING   WATEB 


ing  Air 
L  70°to  95° 


Temperature  of  |  Air  70 
rap.  iHot Condensing  Water  i95 


Temp.  Cold  Condensing  Water!  70 
B.T.U.  to  be  take'n  from  1  lb. 


40  IDS.  Water  per  1  lb  of  Exhaust. 


440 
Cubic_Eeet-Of_Ai 


983  B.T  U.  to  be 
20.7  Ibs.  Water  to  1 


EDWA&D    F.    MILLEB,   '86  357 

H.P.  per  hour,  then  the  steam  per  minute  is  14/60  and  the  cu.  ft.  of  air 
sent  through  the  tower  per  Ib.  steam  is  14/60  X  455. 

The  H.P.  input  to  the  fan  is,  for  this  case,  if  30  per  cent  is  assumed 
as  fan  efficiency: 


of  the  engine  power. 

To  this  should  be  added  the  power  due  to  pumping  14/60  X  40  Ibs. 
of  cooling  water  per  minute  through  an  additional  head  of  about  30  ft. 
This  amounts  to  .00848  H.P. 

If  the  fan  were  driven  by  a  small  engine  using  35  Ibs.  of  steam  per 
H.P.  hour  and  the  circulating  apparatus  were  also  steam  driven  using 
40  Ibs.  per  H.P.  hour,  then  the  extra  steam  required  by  the  cooling  tower 

QOQ 

outfit  would  be  .0167  X  35  +  .00848  X  40  =  .923  and  ^=.066  or    6.6 

•       ,  14 

per  cent  additional. 

A  similar  calculation  for  a  case  with  26"  vacuum,  80  per  cent  humidity, 
with  engine  using  15  Ibs.  of  steam  per  H.P.  hour,  gives  : 

Air  per  minute  =—-X  184 
bU 

0.3X5.2X^X184 
H.P.  tofan=      33,000X0.30  ~ 

20.6X^X30 

Extra  H.P.  on  circulating  pump=  --  ^-TTT^  --  =0.00468 

00,000 

If  fan  engine  and  calculating  apparatus  were  steam  driven,  then  using 
the  same  rate  as  before: 

0.0072  X  35  +  0.00468  X40=  0.44 
0.44 


15 


•=0.0295  or  about  3%  additional. 


If  the  cooling  surface  used  in  the  tower  offers  much  resistance  to  the 
free  discharge  of  air  from  the  fan  through  the  tower,  it  may  be  necessary 
to  run  the  fan  at  a  higher  velocity  which  increases  the  work  of  driving. 


358       THE  CONTINUOUS  COOLING  OF  CIRCULATING  WATER 

SPRAY  NOZZLES. 

By  spraying  water  into  the  air  a  cooling  may  be  effected  through 
the  evaporation  of  a  part  of  the  water  just  as  was  the  case  in  the  cooling 
tower. 

The  total  exposed  surface  of  the  sprayed  jet  meets  less  air  per  pound 
than  in  the  cooling  tower,  and  on  this  account  it  is  often  advisable  to  spray 
30  to  50  per  cent  of  the  water  a  second  time  before  sending  it  through 
the  condenser. 

Generally,  spray  nozzles  of  the  size  known  as  2"  are  the  most  eco- 
nomical. The  2"  size  screws  onto  a  2"  outlet;  the  opening  in  the  nozzle 
tip  being  about  .8".  As  many  nozzles  should  be  provided  as  are  needed 
to  discharge  the  entire  weight  of  condensing  water  under  a  pressure  of 
not  over  15  Ibs.  gage  at  the  nozzle. 

The  nozzles  should  be  set  from  8  to  10  feet  apart  if  2";  a  greater 
distance  if  over  2".  Where  a  considerable  number  of  nozzles  are  used  it 
is  customary  to  have  the  water  which  is  sprayed  into  the  air  fall  back  into 
an  artificial  pond  one  or  two  feet  deep. 

When  a  number  of  nozzles  are  in  use  the  aspirator  action  exerted  by 
the  jets  causes  a  current  of  air  to  flow  along  the  surface  of  the  pond  from 
the  edge  towards  the  center.  This  current  of  air  assists  to  some  extent  in 
the  cooling. 

In  some  few  instances  spray  nozzles  have  been  put  along  the  edge  of 
a  narrow  brook  and  the  falling  spray  caught  on  board  fences  inclined  30° 
with  the  ground  and  draining  into  the  brook. 

There  are  one  or  two  small  plants  where  the  cooling  nozzles  discharge 
onto  the  roof  of  the  building.  The  extra  head  of  water  on  the  circulating 
pump  makes  this  inadvisable,  however. 

Experiments  on  Schutte  &  Koerting  nozzles  of  sizes  known  as  3"  - 
2"— I"  have  been  carried  on  at  the  Institute  since  1908;  at  the  present 
time  two  other  types  of  nozzle  are  being  tested. 

From  the  tests  on  the  Schutte-Koertting  nozzles  it  seems  that : 
1.  The  temperature   of  the  water   after   spraying  is  more   dependent 
upon  the  temperature  and  humidity  of  the  atmosphere  and  upon  the  fine- 
ness of  the  spray  than  upon  the  initial  temperature  of  the  water.     There- 
fore it  is  advisable  to  spray  the  water  as  hot  as  may  be  without  excessive 
.  steaming. 

2.  At  high  humidity,  80  per  cent  or  90  per  cent,  the  temperature 
of  the  water  may  be  lowered  to  within  12° F.  or  13  °F.  of  the  temperature 
of  the  air,  with  a  total  drop  in  temperature  of  35 °F.  to  40 °F. 


EDWAED    F.    MILLEE,   '86 


359 


3.  At  low  humidity,  20  per  cent  to  30  per  cent,  the  temperature  of 
the  water  after  spraying  may  be  as  much  as  8°F.  below  the  temperature 
of  the  air  and  the  total  drop  in  temperature  40  °F.  to  45  °F. 

4.  The  loss  of  water  by  evaporation  is  approximately  .15  pounds 
per  degree  lowering  of  temperature  per  100  pounds  of  water  discharged, 
or  a  gross  loss  of  about  6  per  cent  for  40  °F.  lowering  of  temperature.  In 
no  case  was  the  loss  found  to  exceed  7  per  cent. 

The  discharge  from  these  nozzles  was  found  to  be  as  follows: 


Head  in  Feet  at 
Base  of  , 
Nozzle. 

Cu.  Ft.  per  Min.'for  1" 
Pipe.    Diam.  Nozzle 
at  Tip,  .406". 

Cu.  Ft.  per  M  in  for~2" 
Pipe.     Tip  -0.800" 
Diam. 

Cu.  Ft.  per  Min.  for  3" 
Pipe.     Tip  =  1.181" 
Diam. 

25 
30 
35 
40 
45 
50 
55 
>      60 
65 

1.782 
1.952 
2.109 
2.254 
2.391 
2.520 
2.643 
2.761 
2.873 

6.736 
7.379 
7.971 
8.521 
9.036 
9.526 
9.991 
10.44 
10.86 

14.83 
16.24 
17.54 
18.75 
19.89 
20.97 
21.99 
22.97 
23.91 

COOLING  PONDS  AND  SPRAY  NOZZLES. 

When  there  is  a  natural  pond  of  moderate  size  adjacent  to  a  power 
plant,  sufficient  cooling  may  be  obtained  by  spraying  all  or  a  part  of  the 
condenser  discharge;  the  cooling  from  the  surface  of  the  pond  being  of 
considerable  assistance. 

COOLING  PONDS. 

Unless  the  pond  is  of  considerable  area  the  cooling  from  mere  air 
contact  with  the  surface  is  not  in  general  sufficient  to  keep  the  temperature 
from  rising,  especially  on  hot  damp  days. 


POWER  PLANT  BETTERMENT. 

By  H.  H.  HUNT,  '89. 
Stone  and  Webster  Management  Association,  Boston. 

IN  this  paper  is  undertaken  a  brief  discussion  of  some  of  the  prob- 
lems which  arise  in  the  work  of  power  plant  betterment,  by  which  term 
is  meant  improvement  in  economy  of  operation  and  maintenance.  While 
the  discussion  will,  in  the  main,  be  of  a  general  nature,  and  therefore  ap- 
plicable to  power  plants  in  general,  it  is  particularly  applicable  to  the 
steam-driven  electric  power  plant  of  the  public  service  company  of  moderate 
size. 

The  general  tendency  toward  consolidation  has  extended  to  power 
plants,  and  many  of  the  smaller  ones  have  been  replaced  by  large  central 
stations  of  modern  design,  operated  by  high-priced  men  and  with  great 
refinement.  There  are,  however,  many  of  the  smaller  plants  which  for 
good  and  sufficient  reasons  are  still  in  operation  and  which  must  be  oper- 
ated in  the  future.  In  the  face  of  the  upward  tendency  of  wages,  cost  of 
apparatus  and  materials  and  the  downward  tendency  of  rates  and  increas- 
ing demands  for  improved  service,  the  public  service  company  of  to-day  is 
in  a  position  where  the  question  of  economy  all  along  the  line,  and  partic- 
ularly in  that  most  important  part  of  the  property — the  power  plant — is 
one  of  vital  importance. 

A  casual  inspection  of  one  of  these  small  power  plants  will  usually 
reveal  a  more  or  less  heterogeneous  collection  of  apparatus  and  machinery, 
some  of  which  dates  back  to  the  early  days  of  the  business.  In  other  words, 
the  plant  is  by  no  means  modern  and  up  to  date.  This,  together  with  the 
fact  that  such  a  plant  is  usually  operated  by  a  force  of  engineers  and  fire- 
men of  only  ordinary  intelligence  and  ability,  might  naturally  lead  to  the 
conclusion  that,  even  under  most  favorable  conditions,  high  power  costs 
are  to  be  expected. 

On  the  other  hand,  a  careful  and  detailed  examination  by  an  expert 
in  power  station  operation  will  almost  invariably  reveal  many  features 
which  are  capable  of  marked  improvement,  enabling  the  expert  to  report 
recommendations  which,  if  properly  carried  into  effect,  will  result  in  ma- 

360 


H.    H.    HUNT,   >89  361 

terial  reductions,  in  costs  of  manufacture  and  maintenance,  and  all  this 
to  be  accomplished  without  the  expenditure  of  a  large  amount  of  money 
for  revamping  the  plant. 

It  has  just  been  said,  that  the  improvements  will  follow  if  the  recom- 
mendations are  "properly  carried  into  effect."  This  is  a  most  important 
point  to  be  borne  in  mind  in  any  attempt  to  increase  the  economy  of  a 
power  plant.  It  is  a  simple  matter  to  employ  a  competent  expert,  allow 
him  to  make  such  examination  and  tests  as  will  enable  him  to  calculate 
possible  savings,  and  make  detailed  recommendations  and  give  instruc- 
tion as  to  how  the  possible  savings  may  be  secured.  If  the  betterment 
work  stops  here,  little  will  be  acomplished,  for  the  simple  reason  that  the 
man  who  must  carry  out  the  work — the  chief  engineer  of  the  plant — unless 
he  be  an  extraordinary  man  for  the  position  he  occupies,  will  not  have 
sufficient  capacity  and  initiative  to  enable  him  to  get  the  desired  results. 
It  will  be  necessary  to  retain  the  expert  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time  to  en- 
able him,  by  detailed  attention  to  the  actual  operation  of  the  plant,  under 
regular  working  conditions,  to  not  only  demonstrate  the  correctness  of  his 
recommendations  but  also  to  instruct  the  power  plant  organization,  to  such 
an  extent  as  will  enable  them  to  continue  the  work  after  the  expert  leaves. 
As  above  stated,  this  is  a  point  of  great  importance.  It  has  not  been 
sufficiently  appreciated  in  many  instances,  with  the  result  that  much  money 
has  been  wasted  on  engineering  work  and  a  feeling  of  distrust  has  been 
created  in  the  minds  of  the  owners  in  regard  to  expert  work,  because  the 
desired  results  did  not  automatically  follow  the  expert's  examination  and 
report.  In  other  words,  power  plant  betterment,  like  everything  else,  if 
undertaken  along  proper  lines,  will  produce  satisfactory  results,  but  not 
otherwise. 

In  undertaking  the  betterment  of  operating  conditions  in  a  power  plant 
attention  should  be  first  given  to  the  personnel  of  the  operating  force. 
Desired  results  cannot  be  obtained  by  incompetent  men.  It  goes  without 
saying  that  the  chief  engineer,  who  must  be  primarily  responsible  for  what 
takes  place  in  the  plant,  should  be  a  man  of  both  operating  and  executive 
ability,  capable  of  enforcing  strict  discipline.  He  must  be  capable  of  re- 
ceiving instruction,  as  must  also  the  other  members  of  the  force.  Each 
man  who  does  not  possess  the  possibility  of  becoming  a  thoroughly  efficient 
and  alert  member  of  the  force  should  be  replaced  as  soon  as  possible.  Most 
careful  study  will  be  required  in  arriving  at  correct  conclusions  in  refer- 
ence to  each  individual  of  the  operating  force  in  order  that  justice  may 
be  done.  It  not  infrequently  happens  that  certain  men  develop  unexpected 
ability  as  they  gradually  become  familiar  with  the  methods  by  which  actual 


362  POWER    PLANT    BETTERMENT 

improvements  are  brought  about.  Furthermore,  every  reasonable  oppor- 
tunity should  be  given  the  existing  employees  to  measure  up  to  the  new 
requirements  in  order  to  avoid  the  demoralization  to  the  organization  which 
would  be  caused  by  the  needless  discharge  of  men.  Under  the  improved 
conditions  the  general  tone  of  the  power  station  force  should  improve  in  a 
marked  degree,  and  in  place  of  indifference  and  lack  of  ambition  should 
be  found  alertness,  efficiency  and  a  greatly  increased  interest  in  the  work, 
all  of  which  are  necessary  to  success. 

A  thorough  physical  examination  of  the  plant  should  be  made  and  im- 
mediate steps  taken  to  correct  such  defects  as  can  be  remedied  without 
excessive  cost.  Starting  in  the  fire  room,  for  instance,  boiler  will  be 
thoroughly  overhauled  and  cleaned,  leaky  tubes  replaced,  blow-off  cocks 
and  valves  made  tight,  gage  glasses  and  dampers  put  in  order,  air  leaks  in 
boiler  settings  removed,  furnace  linings,  bridge  walls  and  grate  bars  put  in 
order,  safety  valves  adjusted  and  steam  gages  calibrated,  etc. 

The  work  will  continue  in  like  manner  to  the  engines,  paying  partic- 
ular attention  to  valve  setting,  steam  piping,  pumps,  condensers,  heaters, 
oiling  system  and  electrical  machinery,  apparatus  and  wiring  and  all  other 
parts  of  the  plant. 

In  connection  with  this  general  overhaul  of  the  machinery,  all  gages, 
meters  and  measuring  instruments  should  be  calibrated  and  tested,  so 
as  to  give  accurate  information  regarding  the  operation  of  the  plant. 

Attention  should  also  be  given  to  the  matter  of  tools,  and  it  should  be 
seen  that  suitable  assortment  is  provided,  both  for  the  engine  room  and 
the  fire  room. 

Finally,  the  station  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  and  all  housekeeping 
matters  given  proper  attention,  for  while,  theoretically,  there  may  be  no 
connection  between  cleanliness  and  economy,  a  dirty,  ill-kept  plant  indi- 
cates inefficiency. 

With  the  physical  plant  in  good  working  condition  and  the  power  plant 
crew  in  an  alert  and  receptive  mood,  the  details  of  operation  may  now  be 
taken  up. 

•  All  firemen  will  be  individually  instructed  in  the  handling  of  the 
particular  coal  in  use;  the  use  of  properly  designed  fire  tools,  the  proper 
operation  of  the  dampers  and  proper  control  of  the  draft.  A  thorough 
course  of  training  along  these  lines  will  usually  be  found  necessary,  and 
it  will  be  further  necessary  to  instruct  the  chief  and  watch  engineers  in 
every  detail  of  the  proper  handling  of  the  fires  in  order  that  they  may  be 
able  to  maintain  intelligent  oversight  of  the  fire  room. 

Special  attention  will  be  given  to  the  maintenance  of  boiler  pressure 


H.    H.    HUNT,   '89  363 

and  temperature  of  feed  water,  in  order  to  avoid  the  usual  fluctuations 
which  so  largely  affect  station  economy.  Eecording  pressure  gages  and 
feed  water  thermometer  and  a  bulletin  board  in  the  fire  room,  on  which  are 
posted  the  coal  consumption  and  pressure  records  of  each  watch,  will  serve 
a  useful  purpose  in  exciting  rivalry  among  the  men.  It  is  in  the  fire  room 
that  money,  in  the  shape  of  fuel,  is  actually  burned.  At  this  point  the 
fuel,  which  is  the  source  of  power,  is  consumed.  It  is  essential  that  no 
detail  which  will  affect  fire  room  economy  should  be  overlooked.  An 
operating  engineer  can  profitably  spend  a  good  portion  of  his  time  in  in- 
telligent personal  supervision  of  the  fire  room  operations. 

Presumably  the  engineers  will  understand  such  matters  as  the  start- 
ing and  stopping  of  their  engines  and  generators;  nevertheless,  the  atten- 
tion of  the  expert  should  be  carefully  directed  to  the  engine  room. 

It  is  of  importance  to  provide  operating  schedules  so  that  the  vary- 
ing conditions  of  load  may  be  met  by  the  economical  use  of  apparatus;  in 
other  words,  so  as  to  avoid  the  use  of  three  boilers  when  two  are  sufficient, 
and  so  on.  A  most  careful  study  of  the  load  conditions  will  be  made  and 
charts  prepared  which  will  show  clearly  just  what  combinations  of  appara- 
tus and  machinery  should  be  used  to  meet  the  various  conditions  of  load, 
the  idea  being  to  so  arrange  the  schedules  that  each  piece  of  apparatus, 
when  in  use,  will  be  operated  as  nearly  as  possible  at  its  point  of  maximum 
efficiency. 

A  carefully  designed  station  log  will  also  be  provided  which  will  con- 
tain the  daily  operating  data  of  the  plant  recorded  in  a  systematic  manner. 
In  such  a  station  log  it  is  very  desirable  that  the  main  facts,  such  as  coal 
consumed  per  kilowatt  hour,  water  evaporated  per  pound  of  coal,  etc., 
be  shown  so  clearly  that  the  manager  of  the  company,  by  spending  a  few 
minutes  daily  in  the  study  of  the  station  log,  may  fully  acquaint  himself 
with  the  daily  operations  of  his  plant  and  be  in  position  to  intelligently  dis- 
cuss matters  with  his  chief  engineer. 

The  coal  question  is  one  of  the  most  important,  and  one  of  the  most 
troublesome,  which  is  encountered  in  power  plant  operation.  The  quality 
of  coal  must  necessarily  depend,  to  a  certain  extent,  upon  the  location  of 
the  power  plant  as  related  to  the  sources  of  coal  supply.  It  will  be  found 
profitable  to  have  a  careful  investigation  made  of  the  possible  sources  from 
which  coal  may  be  secured  at  reasonable  prices.  Full  data  should  be  gath- 
ered regarding  the  analysis  of  the  various  coals  available  and  that  coal 
selected  which  will  meet  local  conditions  with  best  results.  While  not 
always  practicable,  it  is  none  the  less  desirable  to  purclxase  coal  on  the 
analysis  basis  under  carefully  drawn  specifications  which  provide  for  for- 


364  POWER   PLANT    BETTERMENT 

feiture  and  bonus  according  to  whether  the  coal  falls  short  of  or  exceeds 
the  requirements  of  the  contract.  Under  such  a  contract  an  analysis  of 
each  shipment  of  coal  is  necessary.  Where  the  annual  consumption  is  com- 
paratively small,  it  is  not  practicable  to  purchase  coal  on  the  analysis  basis ; 
in  that  event  the  best  that  can  be  done  is  to  buy  it  of  responsible  dealers 
who  handle  the  best  coal  to  be  had  under  the  circumstances. 

The  accounting  for  coal  purchased,  while  seemingly  simple,  proves  in 
practice  more  or  less  troublesome.  Coal  is  frequently  purchased  and  paid 
for  according  to  bill  of  lading  weights.  The  consumer  is  liable  to  suffer 
shortage  under  this  method  of  purchase  and  to  start  out  with  substantially 
less  coal  in  his  coal  pile  than  is  called  for  by  his  books.  It  is  obvious  that 
ultimately  the  cost  of  the  coal  consumed  must  check  with  the  cost  of  coal 
purchased,  and  in  order  to  bring  about  this  agreement,  frequent  checks 
between  station  records,  coal  on  hand  and  fuel  accounts  are  necessary.  It 
will  be  found  desirable  to  arrange  proper  scales  for  weighing  in  bulk  the 
coal  which  comes  into  the  yard,  and  if  a  contract  for  purchase  can  be  so 
arranged  as  to  make  payments  on  basis  of  company's  weights,  one  question 
of  coal  shortage  will  be  removed.  Bins  should  be  provided  which  will 
enable  the  coal  supply  to  be  accurately  measured  at  any  time.  Then  the 
coal  passing  into  the  fire  room  must  be  carefully  weighed  and 
weights  recorded.  With  these  data  at  hand  and  this  system  carefully  fol- 
lowed, there  is  no  excuse  for  coal  shortage. 

Proper  and  systematic  maintenance  is  an  important  part  of  power 
plant  betterment  work.  It  is  not  infrequently  the  case  that  the  mainte- 
nance of  a  plant  is  handled  in  a  haphazard  fashion  and  that  full  value  is  not 
received  for  the  money  expended.  It  is  not  sufficient  to  wait  until  some- 
thing breaks  before  giving  it  attention,  for  the  breakdown  may  occur  at  a 
time  when  the  machine  is  needed  to  maintain  continuous  service,  to  say 
nothing  of  the  excess  cost  of  repairs  over  what  would  probably  have  been 
the  case  had  the  condition  been  anticipated  and  the  break  avoided.  Low 
cost  of  maintenance  does  not  always  indicate  thorough  or  economical  main- 
tenance, for  while  it  may  be  possible  to  run  for  months  on  abnormally  low 
maintenance  costs,  the  time  will  come  when  the  accumulation  of  deferred 
maintenance  will  produce  a  condition  of  affairs  which  will  require  excessive 
expenditures,  if  not  for  new  apparatus,  certainly  for  the  overhaul  and  re- 
pair of  the  old.  It  is  therefore  desirable  to  prepare  a  proper  mainte- 
nance shedule  which  shall  be  carefully  and  conscientiously  followed  by 
the  operating  force.  Such  a  schedule  will  set  forth  definite  dates  for  the 
inspection  of  all  apparatus;  the  schedule  to  be  so  arranged  that  each  and 
every  part  will  receive  periodical  attention  as  often  as  is  necessary  to  keep 


H.    H.    HUNT,   '89  365 

it  in  good  operating  condition.  The  history  of  such  systematic  mainte- 
nance is  of  value  to  those  in  charge,  as  it  will  enable  them  to  pursue  the 
work  with  greater  intelligence  and  expedition.  A  log  book  should,  there- 
fore, be  used  in  connection  wr$i  the  maintenance  schedules,  and  in  this  log 
book  should  be  carefully  recorded,  in  detail,  the  results  of  all  inspections, 
repairs,  adjustments,  etc.  By  the  aid  of  this  maintenance  log  and  a  care- 
ful adherence  to  the  maintenance  schedule,  proper  maintenance  of  every 
part  of  the  plant  will  be  assured  and  unexpected  breakdowns  practically 
avoided.  In  the  ordinary  plant,  with  its  usual  lack  of  reserve  apparatus, 
continuous  service,  which  is  so  necessary  to  success,  cannot  be  expected  if 
proper  and  systematic  maintenance  is  neglected. 

What  may  be  expected  as  the  result  of  this  power  plant  betterment 
work?  First:  accurate  knowledge  of  the  maximum  efficiency  of  which 
the  particular  plant  under  consideration  is  capable ;  second :  the  securing 
of  this  efficiency  through  the  efforts  of  a  well  trained  efficient  operating 
force ;  third :  systematic  and  economical  maintenance  producing  maximum 
life  of  apparatus  and  continuity  of  service;  fourth:  in  case  of  failure  to 
continue  to  produce  results,  a  knowledge  of  the  reason  why. 

Experience  has  shown  that  the  saving  in  power  costs,  resulting  from 
power  station  betterment  work,  will  cover  the  cost  of  the  necessary  expert 
services  in  connection  with  the  same  in  a  comparatively  short  time,  de- 
pending, of  course,  on  the  amount  of  saving  effected. 

The  continued  operation  of  a  power  plant  under  the  conditions  estab- 
lished by  succesful  betterment  work,  by  which  maximum  economy  in  oper- 
ation and  maintenance  are  secured,  calls  for  most  active  and  energetic 
work  on  the  part  of  the  operating  force.  In  fact,  from  the  manager  of  the 
company  all  along  the  line  down  to  the  coal  passers  in  the  power 
plant,  every  man  must  work  under  high  pressure.  After  the  novelty  of 
the  improved  condition  wears  off,  the  operation  of  the  plant  becomes  not 
only  monotonous  but  exceedingly  strenuous.  It  is  so  much  easier  to  slip 
back  a  little  than  to  maintain  the  required  pace  that  frequent  checking 
of  the  plant  operation  is  necessary.  The  manager  must  give  his  personal 
attention  to  this  matter,  and  he  will  doubtless  be  surprised  to  note  the 
effect  of  his  failure  to  carefully  follow  up  the  matter  of  daily  checking  of 
the  plant,  if  for  any  reason  it  becomes  necessary  for  him  to  temporarily 
discontinue  his  critical  study  of  the  daily  station  log.  It  will  require  his 
constant  study,  criticism  and  encouragement  to  keep  the  operating  force 
in  the  power  plant  keyed  up  to  the  work  required  of  them. 

In  spite  of  all  reasonable  efforts,  it  is  quite  likely  that  the  economy 
of  the  plant  may  gradually  decrease  because  of  a  combination  of  little 


366  POWER    PLANT    BETTERMENT 

things  which  creep  into  the  operation  of  the  plant  unnoticed  by  the  en- 
gineers. This  has  been  noted  in  actual  experience  and  has  led  to  the  be- 
lief that  a  periodical  power  plant  audit  by  a  competent  expert  is  necessary 
just  as  it  is  found  necessary  to  periodically  audit  the  accounting  depart- 
ment. Such  an  audit  will  require  much  less  time  than  for  the  original 
examination,  especially  if  both  examinations  and  audit  are  made  by  the 
same  man,  and  should  not,  therefore,  be  very  expensive. 

It  should  not  be  inferred  from  what  has  just  been  said  regarding  the 
daily  check  and  periodical  audit  that  the  economical  operation  of  a  power 
plant  is  impractical  because  of  the  detailed  attention  required  on  the 
part  of  the  management  and  operating  force.  Not  only  has  experience 
proved  the  contrary  to  be  true,  but  results  have  clearly  justified  the  trouble 
and  expense.  Power  plant  betterment  work  has  come  to  stay. 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  ECONOMICAL  OEE  DRESSING 

SYSTEMS 

By  FRANK  E.  SHEPABD,  '87, 
President,  Denver  Engineering  Works,  Denver,  TJolo. 

IN  the  quest  for  mineral  values  there  appear  to  be.  several  phases  of 
development,  one  leading  in  to  the  other.  The  discoveries  of  many  of 
our  large  mining  sections  have  resulted  from  the  placer  workings  in  which 
the  values  are  found  in  gravels  on  or  near  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The 
primitive  methods  with  pick,  shovel  and  hand  rocker  often  served  to 
develop  rich  deposits,  then  followed  the  more  highly  developed  hydraulic 
mining  systems  involving  greater  expenditure  of  capital  but  bringing 
greatly  increased  returns.  This  trail  of  values  leads  to  some  source  and 
so  the  patient  prospector  finally  reaches  an  outcrop  or  vein  which  requires 
deeper  workings  with  a  more  elaborate  plant. 

The  search  is  first  for  high  grade  ores,  for  the  difficulties  of  mine  de- 
velopment, transportation  and  treatment  are  great  and  expenses  in  pro- 
portion. Bonanzas,  however,  are  rare,  and  then  must  come  the  patient 
search  for  ways  and  means  of  developing  better  methods  of  mining,  mill- 
ing and  smelting  for  the  recovery  of  values  from  lower  grade  ores.  Re- 
fractory ores  are  found  which  call  for  more  advanced  methods  of  smelting 
or  the  grade  of  ore  is  such  that  milling  systems  must  be  devised  for  con- 
centrating into  values  sufficient  for  commercial  delivery  to  smelting  or 
refining  points. 

While  the  general  trend  of  ore  values  has  been  from  high  to  lower 
grade  there  has  also  been  a  somber  accompaniment  of  decreasing  market 
prices  for  the  metals  calling  for  serious  study  in  all  metallurgical  systems. 
Ten  years  ago,  manufacturers  of  machinery  for  ore  reduction  processes, 
in  the  Rocky  Mountain  section,  were  devoting  much  attention  to  the  de- 
tails in  smelting  machinery  for  the  treatment  of  high  grade  ores.  To- 
day there  is  less  call  for  smelting  systems  and  the  demand  appears  for 
improved  ore  dressing  machinery  for  the  recovery  of  values  from  lower  and 
lower  grade  ores.  This  change  from  higher  to  lower  grade  ore  conditions 

367 


368     DEVELOPMENT    OF   ECONOMICAL    ORE    DRESSING    SYSTEMS 

has  taken  place  generally  throughout  the  fields  of  gold,  silver,  lead,  zinc 
and  copper  ores. 

The  stamp  mill,  with  its  amalgamating  plates  and  bumping  tables 
for  the  recovery  of  50  to  70  per  cent  of  gold  and  silver  values  in  the  earlier 
period,  is  being  succeeded  by  the  concentration  and  cyanide  plants  pro- 
ducing recoveries  of  90  per  cent  and  over. 

Lead-iron-zinc  ores  are  presenting  more  and  more  difficult  problems, 
and  with  the  mining  of  lower  grade  ores  of  these  metals  comes  the  demand 
for  better  methods  of  crushing,  screening,  hydraulic  classification  and  con- 
centration, and  in  this  particular  line  of  ore  treatment  appears  the  great 
development  in  electrical  processes  of  mineral  separation. 

The  successful  mining  and  milling  of  the  great  porphyry  copper  ore 
deposits  of  a  grade  as  low  as  two  per  cent  and  under  has  brought  about 
radical  changes  in  milling  methods  and  concentrating  mills  of  10,000  tons 
daily  capacity  have  been  successfully  developed. 

The  tremendous  pace  in  modern  steel  production  has  produced  such 
demands  on  the  iron  ore  supply  that  commercial  possibilities  have  been 
found  in  the  lower  grade  iron  ore  deposits  of  Michigan  and  concentration 
plants  have  been  installed  for  the  treatment  of  20,000  tons  of  ore  daily. 

The  call  for  economy  and  reclamation  of  values  in  the  Cripple  Creek 
district  has  resulted  in  treating  the  dumps  formed  by  the  discarded  ores 
of  a  former  period  by  means  of  modern  concentration  and  the  cyanide 
systems  at  the  remarkably  low  cost  of  $1.50  per  ton. 

In  extensive  mining  operations  the  plan  is  followed  of  erecting  mills 
to  test  the  practical  application  of  the  mill  system  determined  upon  and 
this  proves  of  great  value  in  solving  difficult  problems  of  ore  treatment. 

In  the  smaller  mining  companies,  often  composed  of  business  men 
without  any  experience  in  mining  or  milling  methods,  it  is  seldom  found 
that  sufficient  funds  have  been  devoted  to  these  important  preliminary 
tests  and  instead  of  employing  competent  technical  advice  some  one  of  the 
directors  of  the  company  who  "has  a  liking  for  machinery"  assumes 
charge  of  affairs  and  the  resulting  mining  and  milling  composition  ends 
in  minor  chords.  However  small  the  proposed  mining  or  milling  instal- 
lation, it  is  always  advisable  to  secure  the  advice  of  the  mining  or  metal- 
lurgical engineer  who  studies  the  entire  field  of  operation  and  the  economic 
conditions  relating  to  mine  and  mill,  makes  suitable  examination  of  mine, 
takes  sufficient  samples  of  the  ore,  and  after  preliminary  test  is  prepared 
to  submit  general  plans  and  specifications  for  a  suitable  mill  system. 
While  the  manufacturers  of  mining  and  milling  machinery  are  by  custom 
expected  to  prepare  plans  for  milling  systems,  on  account  of  the  stress 


FEANK   E.    SHEPABD,   >87  369 

in  business  competition,  such  is  not  an  economic  condition  and  it  is  better 
practice  to  have  one  engineer  thoroughly  advised  on  all  technical  matters 
from  inception  to  the  complete  milling  plant. 

The  manufacturer  has  the  very  important  part  to  perform  of  attend- 
ing to  the  many  details  of  mill  installation  and  it  is  his  affair  to  keep  up 
to  the  minute  in  all  the  improvements  which  aid  in  reducing  costs  and  in- 
creasing recovery  of  values  from  the  ores. 

Mill  design  is  a  profession  in  itself.  It  is  not  necessary  for  the  con- 
sulting, mining  or  metallurgical  engineer  of  the  mining  company  to  be 
an  expert  in  the  details  of  mill  construction  as  the  machinery  manufac- 
turers make  a  study  of  these  problems.  The  detail  drawings  of  the  mill 
should  be  entrusted  to  an  engineer  who  has  not  only  a  very  thorough 
knowledge  of  mill  machinery  details  but  an  intimate  knowledge  of  mill 
men  and  practice. 

In  the  selection  of  mill  machinery  the  new,  inexperienced  mining 
company  usually  buys  the  cheapest  grade,  while  the  mill  superintendent 
of  long  experience  buys  the  best  machinery  that  can  be  built.  In  a  small 
mill  treating  50  tons  in  24  hours  of  an  ore  having  a  value  of  $15  per  ton 
and  assuming  the  mill  recovers  80  per  cent  of  the  value,  a  delay  in  opera- 
tion of  but  one  hour  means  a  loss  of  $25.  It  is  manifestly  poor  economy 
to  save  a  few  hundred  dollars  in  the  original  investment  at  the  exponse 
of  several  thousand  dollars  in  delays  and  repairs. 

Ore  crushers  were  formerly  equipped  with  bard  cast  iron  jaw  plates 
which  were  required  to  be  removed  every  few  weeks,  whereas  now  these 
crashers  are  provided  with  the  best  crucible  steel  jaw  plates  which  last 
for  several  months.  Crushing  rolls  were  formerly  equipped  with  cast  iron 
shells  which  gave  short  service  and  soon  became  grooved;  now  the  best 
forged  steel,  machine  finished  shells  are  used  with  the  result  of  longer  ser- 
vice and  better  product. 

Elevating  and  conveying  apparatus  has  reached  a  high  state  of 
development,  all  tending  to  greatly  reduce  costs  of  handling  materials. 
By  means  of  these  excellent  modern  devices  the  entire  mill  sys- 
tem is  automatic  from  beginning  to  end,  save  for  the  adjustments  of 
machinery. 

One  of  the  greatest  if  not  the  greatest  improvement  in  the  wet  con- 
centration of  ores  has  been  the  important  development  in  the  preparation 
of  ore  pulps  previous  to  jigging  and  table  work  as  a  result  of  the  investi- 
gation of  Dr.  Eobert  H.  Eichards,  our  honored  graduate  and  Professor  in 
Mining  Engineering. 

Dr.  Richards'  devices  for  hydraulic  classification  of  ore  pulps,  previous 


370     DEVELOPMENT    OF    ECONOMICAL    OEE    DRESSING    SYSTEMS 

to  table  concentration,  have  produced  savings  in  ore  values  over  former 
methods  amounting  to  hundreds  of  thousands  of  dollars  annually* 

If  we  refer  to  our  small  mill  before  mentioned  having  50  tons  capacity 
daily  and  recovering  80  per  cent  of  values  in  $15  ore,  an  improvement  in 
recovery  of  only  five  per  cent  will  mean  an  additional  annual  saving  of! 
over  $12,000.  Such  improvements  have  actually  been  accomplished  in  prac- 
tical mill  systems  using  Dr.  Bichards7  systems  of  hydraulic  classification. 

The  tube  mill  is  an  important  element  in  modern  mill  systems  and  was 
adapted  from  cement  mill  practice.  It  takes  the  place  of  the  more  com- 
plicated crushing  machines  involving  the  frequent  renewal  of  shoes,  dies, 
screens  and  various  parts  in  roller  or  Chilian  mills  and  presents  a  simpler 
and  more  economical  means  for  the  fine  crushing  of  ores.  The  develop- 
ment of  the  tube  mill  in  connection  with  the  stamp  mill  in  South  African 
practice  is  extraordinary;  the  combination  effecting  an  increase  in  tons 
crushed  per  stamp  from  five  tons,  before  the  tube  mill  was  introduced, 
to  twenty  tons  per  stamp  when  assisted  by  the  tube  mill. 

The  better  understanding  of  the  preparation  of  pulps  previous  to 
table  treatment  as  well  as  the  better  understanding  of  the  concentrating 
tables  themselves  has  brought  about  great  impfovement  in  mill  recoveries. 

The  development  of  magnetic  and  static  concentrating  machinery  has 
established  practical  separation  of  iron  and  zinc  minerals  which  before 
was  most  difficult  or  impossible. 

Most  interesting  use  has  been  made  of  the  property  of  film  tension 
in  liquids  for  the  purpose  of  separating  mineral  values  from  the  attending 
gangue.  In  general  the  sulphides  of  the  metals  may  be  floated  on  the 
liquid  while  the  gangue  sinks.  While  the  system  is  limited  to  certain 
conditions  it  opens  a  fascinating  field  and  one  which  may  develop  into 
great  possibilities. 

Even  greater  progress  could  be  accomplished  were  it  possible  to  ob- 
tain the  earnest  cooperation  of  mill  operators.  In  some  cases  splendid 
triumphs  have  been  accomplished  because  new  devices  have  been  given  the 
"square  deal"  by  intelligent  and  progressive  mill  operators.  On  the 
other  hand  many  a  mill  system  is  undeveloped  on  account  of  persona^ 
prejudice  and  lack  of  initiative. 

Failures  in  mill  systems  are  often  due  to  neglect  in  making  tests  to 
determine  the  points  where  losses  occur  or  the  costs  of  various  operations. 
Changes  suddenly  occur  in  the  ore  and  if  not  promptly  followed  up  with 
required  changes  in  the  mill  system  will  result  in  serious  losses. 

One  of  the  modern  requirements  is  thorough  sampling  and  the  best 
mills  make  use  of  automatic  sampling  throughout  the  system. 


FEANK   E.    SHEPAKD,   '87  371 

It  is  most  important  to  have  the  right  spirit  prevail  among  the  mem- 
bers of  the  mill  crew.  Good  team  work  tells  here  as  well  as  in  the  game 
and  a  fair  attitude  and  attention  to  improve  methods  of  milling  means 
also  thousands  of  dollars  to  the  mining  company. 

We  often  see  machinery  advertised  as  "fool  proof/5  If  the  mill 
system  is  to  be  run  by  fools  then  we  need  the  fool  proof  machinery,  but  if  we 
cannot  advance  beyond  the  stage  of  fool  proof  machinery  then  we  might 
as  well  give  up  our  cherished  ideas  of  additional  recoveries  in  ore  values. 
For  the  economical  recovery  of  values  in  low  grade  ores  we  must  expect 
greater  complication  in  mill  systems,  but  if  we  can  save  $25,000  by  the 
addition  of  some  machine,  even  though  not  classified  as  "  fool  proof," 
is  not  the  expenditure  warranted  of  $2,500  in  wages  to  some  millman  who 
will  be  a  friend  to  the  machine? 

The  man  who  stands  by  the  machine  has  the  opportunity  of  discover- 
ing many  points,  possibly  improvements  regarding  the  operation  or  re- 
sults of  that  machine.  If  the  personal  equation  of  that  man  is  plus  and 
he  receives  proper  recognition  by  the  management,  the  result  is  a  substan- 
tial increment  to  favorable  mill  development.  Mills  are  usually  located 
in  remote  sites,  difficult  of  access  and  in  many  cases  at  altitudes  of  10,000 
and  12,000  feet  above  sea  level.  It  requires  some  financial  incentive  to 
induce  good  men  to  work  constantly  under  these  conditions  and  liberal 
wages  must  be  offered  to  establish  a  good  order  of  intelligence  in  the 
mill  crew. 

The  study  of  mill  systems  has  in  some  cases  shown  a  high  order  of5 
inventive  ability  among  mill  superintendents  in  the  development  of  devices 
for  increasing  the  recovery  of  ore  values,  or  reducing  the  expense  of  oper- 
ation. There  is  however  a  great  amount  of  blind  prejudice  to  overcome 
when  an  attempt  is  made  to  introduce  improved  methods  in  the  milling 
systems.  This  is  a  strange  condition,  for  one  would  think  that  any  mill- 
man  would  be  favorable  to  any  device  which  would  show  improved  results 
even  at  the  expense  of  some  extra  attention,  but  the  fact  remains  that 
it  requires  a  bitter  fight  to  establish  new  systems. 


RECENT  DEVELOPMENTS  IN  BRIDGE  CONSTRUCTION 

By  FRANK  P.  McKIBBEN,  '94, 
Professor  of  Civil  Engineering,  Lehigh  University,   S.  Bethlehem,   Pa. 

THE  most  remarkable  development  in  bridge  construction  during  the 
past  quarter  of  a  century  has  been  the  progress  made  in  the  use  of  con- 
crete, either  alone  or  reinforced  with  steel.  When  it  is  considered  that 
only  twenty-two  years  ago  the  first  reinforced  concrete  arch  bridge  was  built 
in  Golden  Gate  Park  at  San  Francisco,  and  that  from  this  small  span 
of  only  thirty-five  feet  to  the  recently  constructed  arch  span  of  three 
hundred  twenty  feet  in  New  Zealand  is  a  tremendous  step,  it  is  evident 
that  progress  has  been  truly  wonderful.  Concrete,  like  stone,  is  best 
suited  to  resist  compressive  stresses,  and  it  can  be  readily  molded  into 
any  desired  form  or  size  and  it  is  therefore  not  surprising  that  when  con- 
crete came  into  use  as  a  bridge  material  it  should  have  been  used  in  the 
arch  form.  It  was  comparatively  an  easy  change  from  the  stone  arch  that 
had  been  the  standard  arch  form  for  many  centuries  to  the  concrete  mono- 
lithic or  voussoir  arch  of  similar  outline.  But  it  was  soon  realized  that 
concrete  in  combination  with  steel  has  a  distinct  individuality  of  its  own 
and  hence  important  changes  were  made  in  the  form  of  construction  re- 
sulting in  the  use  of  lighter  structures  of  more  pleasing  design  and  appear- 
ance. The  constant  tendency  has  been  towards  the  elimination  of  re- 
abundant  material.  The  use  of  arch  ribs,  with  the  variation  in  size  and 
shape  thereof  to  conform  to  different  classes  of  loads,  or  the  use  of  solid 
arch  rings  upon  which  rest  columns  or  cross  walls  to  support  the  roadway 
above,  approaches  the  design  so  commonly  adopted  for  arches  with  steel 
ribs  and  in  this  respect  represents  a  decided  departure  from,  and  im- 
provement upon,  the  solid  arch  ring  with  its  superimposed  earth  fill,  which 
was  until  recently  the  standard  form  of  masonry  arch  construction. 

The  most  recent  type  in  reinforced  concrete  highway  bridge  con- 
struction consists  of  a  flat  deck  on  which  the  roadway  is  placed,  the  deck 
in  turn  being  supported  by  columns  or  cross-walls  resting  on  a  solid  arch 
ring  or  upon  ribs.  These  ribs  are  usually  rectangular  in  cross  section, 
although  those  of  circular  form  would  give  a  more  pleasing  appearance  but 

372 


,   >94  373 

would  be  more  costly  and  more  difficult  to  build.  Unless  the  ribs  are  very 
wide  they  should  be  braced  to  prevent  lateral  displacement  under  stress. 
Much  can  be  said  in  favor  of  this  open  spandrel  construction  except  for 
very  short  spans  or  for  spans  of  small  rise  where  the  old  method  of  placing 
the  roadway  on  earth  filling  retained  between  longitudinal  side  walls  is 
better.  In  the  absence  of  such  limitations,  however,  the  open  spandrel 
construction  results  in  a  great  saving  of  weight  of  superstructure,  with 
consequent  diminution  in  size  of  foundations  and  often  also  in  a  more 
pleasing  design.  For  railroad  bridges  the  column-and-rib  type  has  not 
been  adopted,  but  open  spandrels  with  cross-walls  on  solid  arch  rings  are 
of  frequent  occurrence. 

Arch  analysis,  that  is,  the  determination  of  forces  and  stresses  acting 
upon  and  within  the  arch  is  an  interesting  and  beautiful  application  oif 
mathematics  and  mechanics  and  it  is  doubtful  if  in  the  whole  category  of 
engineering  design,  a  more  enticing  field  for  study  can  be  found.  The 
insertion  of  three  hinges  in  the  arch  makes  the  solution  more  nearly  de- 
terminate, and  in  case  of  slight  settlement  of  foundations  the  stresses 
within  the  arch  ring  remain  unchanged.  In  addition  to  this  advantage, 
hinges  relieve  the  ring  from  temperature  stresses,  since  as  temperature 
of  the  arch  changes  the  crown  rises  or  falls  with  almost  perfect  freedom. 
For  arches  of  small  rise  the  advantages  of  hinges  are  so  notable  that  their 
use  will  undoubtedly  become  more  common,  especially  if  some  form  be 
devised  which  can  be  economically  constructed.  For  analysis  of  hingeless 
arches  the  elastic  theory  should  be  employed  because  of  temperature  stresses 
which  are  usually  large  and  which  can  be  computed  only  by  this  method. 

Little  progress  can  be  reported  in  short  span  steel  bridges,  in  fact,  con- 
crete beams  or  arches  are  so  admirably  adapted  to  short  span  construction 
that  steel  is  hardly  holding  its  own  in  this  field.  But  for  long  spans,  steel 
easily  leads.  Great  progress  is  now  being  made  in  the  manufacture  of  alloy 
steels  and  the  time  is  not  far  distant  when  record  breaking  spans  of  steel; 
will  be  built. 

As  a  result  of  the  increased  strength  of  nickel  steel,  the  new  municipal 
bridge  spanning  the  Mississippi  Eiver  at  St.  Louis  has  a  span  of  six  hundred 
sixty-eight  feet  which  far  surpasses  any  simple  truss  length  previously 
attempted.  The  manufacture  of  vanadium  steel,  nickel  steel  and  other 
alloy  steels  for  structural  purposes  is  only  in  its  infancy  and  seems  to  be  a 
most  promising  field  of  investigation  and  progress  for  the  immediate  future. 

No  notable  advances  have  been  made  recently  in  the  type  employed  for 
long  steel  spans,  but  many  wonderful  structures  similar  to  those  tried  and 
not  found  wanting  are  now  being  erected.  The  cantilever  and  the  suspen- 


374          RECENT    DEVELOPMENTS    IN    BRIDGE    CONSTRUCTION 

sion  forms  are  the  two  kinds  commonly  used,  although  there  is  also  an  in- 
creasing tendency  to  employ  steel  arches  of  considerable  length.  The  Que- 
bec bridge  failure  has  had  the  effect  of  temporarily  throwing  the  cantilever 
type  of  truss  into  some  disrepute  but  engineers  must  not  let  the  pendulum 
swing  too  far  because  the  cantilever  has  certain  well  denned  advantages 
which  should  not  be  completely  ignored  simply  on  account  of  one  failure 
of  its  truss  members.  Lamentable  as  was  this  failure,  it  has  been  the 
cause  of  inaugurating  a  searching  investigation  into  methods  of  design  that 
are  founded  upon  empirical  knowledge  and  much  good  is  being  derived 
therefrom.  Resulting  from  the  influence  which  the  Quebec  bridge  failure 
had  upon  the  engineering  world  there  is  a  tremedous  desire  on  the  part 
of  experimenters  to  discover  new  laws  underlying  the  action  of  structural 
materials  and  to  verify  experimentally  methods  of  design  which  until  re- 
cently were  accepted  as  being  sufficient  for  all  cases  that  might  arise  in 
practice. 


THE  MANUFACTUBE  AND  USE  OF  ASBESTOS  WOOD 

By  CHARLES  L.  NORTON,  '93, 
Professor  of  Heat  Measurements,   Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology. 

IT  may  be  of  interest,  and  it  is  perhaps  in  order  here,  to  describe  the 
results  of  an  experiment  made  some  sixteen  years  ago  in  the  Laboratory  of 
Heat  Measurements.  At  this  time,  acting  very  largely  under  the  inspira- 
tion of  the  late  Edward  Atkinson,  I  began  to  search  for  possible  refractory 
substitutes  for  wood.  Provided  with  a  small  screw  press,  such  as  is  used 
for  extracting  juices  from  fruit,  I  began  compacting  various  refractory  sub- 
stances to  see  if  any  of  them  could  be  made  to  resemble  in  their  physical 
properties  ordinary  wood.  It  had  been  frequently  observed  by  Mr.  Atkin- 
son that  the  convenience  attending  the  use  of  wood  in  our  structures  was 
the  principal  cause  of  our  annual  fire  loss,  amounting  in  this  country  to  two 
hundred  millions  of  dollars  a  year  at  that  time.  The  annual  fire  loss  now 
is  more  nearly  three  hundred  millions.  All  of  the  materials  made  during 
the  early  experiments  proved  to  be  too  expensive. 

In  1902,  through  association  with  Mr.  Henry  M.  Whitney  in  his  as- 
bestos enterprises,  the  possibility  of  adapting  and  using  the  various  short 
waste  asbestos  fibre  presented  itself  and  from  this  point  the  experiments 
developed  into  a  commercial  enterprise  of  considerable  magnitude.  It  may 
be  interesting  to  outline  the  development  of  this  novel  industry,  whicih 
would  probably  not  have  grown  up  in  this  way  had  it  not  been  for  the  pe- 
culiar advantages  afforded  by  the  Institute  laboratories  for  investigation 
and  research  in  this  direction. 

It  was  hoped  at  first  to  develop  a  material  which  should  have  the  prin- 
cipal physical  properties  of  wood,  which  could  be  worked  with  wood-work- 
ing tools,  which  should  be  absolutely  non-combustible,  unaffected  by  water 
and  not  affected  mechanically  by  exposure  to  moderately  high  tempera- 
tures. To  be  a  reasonable  and  convenient  substitute  for  wood,  the  new 
material  should  approximate  to  our  common  woods  in  strength,  elasticity, 
toughness,  weight  and  porosity.  It  should  be  hard  enough  to  wear  well, 
and  soft  enough  to  be  readily  cut.  It  must  not  be  too  hard  to  saw  nor  too 
fibrous  to  permit  of  finishing  to  a  good  surface.  Even  after  long  hunting, 

375 


376  THE   MANTJFACTUBE    AND   USE    OF   ASBESTOS   WOOD 

there  seemed  to  be  available  no  homogeneous  material  which  possessed 
such  characteristics,  and  it  became  more  and  more  evident  that  the  proper 
toughness  and  durability  could  only  be  had  by  the  use  of  a  fibrous  substance 
bonded  with  a  suitable  cementing  medium.  The  one  requirement  of  in- 
combustibility rules  out  practically  all  fibres  but  two :  asbestos  and  mineral 
wool.  For  many  reasons,  both  chemical  and  mechanical,  asbestos  was  found 
more  promising  and  all  later  experimenting  was  done  with  this  fibre. 

Asbestos  is  found  nearly  everywhere  in  larger  or  smaller  quantities, 
and  there  is  scarcely  a  State  in  the  Union  without  some  deposits  of  asbestos. 
The  only  large  deposits  which  have  proved  to  be  fit  for  commercial  work- 
ing are  in  Canada,  Eussia  and  Italy.  While  the  Russian  and  Italian 
fibres  are  really  true  asbestos  according  to  the  geologists,  they  are  not  so 
strong,  tough  and  fine  us  the  so-called  asbestos  of  Canada,  which  is  really  a 
chrysotile.  There  are  two  districts  in  the  Province  of  Quebec  from  which 
most  of  the  fibre  is  drawn:  one  in  Danville  and  the  other  near  Thetford. 
The  rock  is  a  serpentine  and  carries  fibre  running  through  it  in  seams  with 
no  systematic  location,  the  majority  of  the  seams  being  from  one-quarter  of 
an  inch  to  an  inch  and  one-half  in  width,  and  the  fibres  run  crosswise  of  the 
seams.  The  total  amount  of  fibre  contained  in  the  rock  of  the  best  mines 
runs  between  five  and  ten  per  cent  of  the  total.  After  blasting,  the  lumps  of 
long  fibre  are  picked  out  by  hand.  The  remainder  of  the  fibre,  known  as  mill 
stock,  is  dried,  ground,  sifted  and  winnowed  by  a  series  of  very  ingenious 
devices  and  graded  according  to  length.  Fibre  about  one  and  one-half 
inches  long  is  known  as  crude,  and  the  price  of  such  fibre  will  range  in  the 
neighborhood  of  $300  a  ton.  From  this  figure  the  shorter  fibres  diminish  in 
price  down  to  about  ten  dollars.  There  is,  of  course,  some  variation  in 
price  according  to  fineness  of  texture,  toughness,  freedom  from  grit,  and 
color.  The  long  fibres  are  used  for  making  cloth,  twine,  gaskets,  packings, 
wicks,  and  so  on.  The  shorter  fibres  are  used  very  largely  for  the  man- 
ufacture of  asbestos  paper  and  pasteboard.  Until  recently,  the  very  short 
fibres  have  had  no  extensive  market  except  for  occasional  use  in  plaster. 

It  proved  experimentally  difficult  to  separate  the  very  short  fibres 
from  the  fine  grit  of  the  ground  matrix  and  the  development  of  the  pro- 
cesses and  machines  for  this  purpose  was  necessary  before  asbestos  wood 
could  become  a  commercial  possibility.  However,  being  given  a  clean  and 
uniform  fibre  at  a  practicable  price,  it  was  necessary  to  investigate  the 
available  cementing  materials.  Naturally  the  silicate  cements,  like  the 
common  hydraulic  cements,  silicate  of  soda,  lime,  plaster  of  Paris,  oxy- 
chloride  of  magnesium,  were  tried. 

There  had  been  other  experimenters  in  the  field,  and  most  of  the 


CHA&LE&    L.    ttOKTOtt,   »d3  377 


promising  materials  had  been  experimented  with  more  or  less.  Imschen- 
etzsky  in  Bussia  and  England  had  constructed  boards  of  long  asbestos  fibres 
and  silicate  of  soda,  which  he  built  up  like  cardboard  upon  a  cylinder  ( 
machine,  the  silicate  of  soda  being  subsequently  precipitated  as  silica  by 
means  of  bicarbonate  of  soda.  The  finished  boards  were  heated  for  a  long 
time  and  the  finished  product  was  known  as  Uralite.  The  tops  of  the 
laboratory  tables  in  Eoom  4,  Walker,  were  coated  with  the  Uralite  about  the 
year  1898  and  it  is  still  in  place.  Brigham,  Nagel  and  others  have  made 
boards  of  long  asbestos  fibre  with  silicate  of  soda,  oxychloride  of  zinc  or  of 
magnesium,  and  many  similar  substances  had  been  used,  as  shown  by 
the  Patent  Office  records.  The  silicate  of  soda  boards  were  not  very  strong, 
even  when  made  of  expensive  fibre,  and  were  for  the  most  part  quite  un- 
stable. Boards  made  of  oxychloride  of  magnesium  with  long  asbestos 
fibre  were  hard,  strong  and  wonderfully  attractive  in  appearance,  but  the 
lapse  of  time  has  shown  that  they  slowly  disintegrate.  Of  the  other  ce- 
menting materials,  none  which  were  of  a  refactory  nature  gave  any  especial 
promise. 

After  much  experimenting,  two  sorts  of  cements  were  selected,  —  • 
one  based  upon  the  hydraulic  action  of  calcined  magnesia,  the  other  a  mod- 
ified Portland  cement.  Some  of  the  original  pieces  made  in  1903  of  these 
two  sorts  of  cement  with  very  short  fibre  are  still  as  serviceable  as  when 
originally  made,  showing  merely  an  increased  hardness. 

In  1904  patents  were  granted  to  Ludwig  Hatschek  of  Austria  for  a 
process  for  making  artificial  stone  plates.  His  method  was  to  make  ur> 
a  sort  of  paper  of  cement  and  asbestos  fibre.  The  process  necessitates  the 
use  of  long  fibre  and  seems  to  be  confined  to  the  manufacture  of  thin  sheets. 
An  extensive  industry  has  been  built  up  in  this  country  and  abroad  in 
making  these  thin  cement  plates. 

It  was  found  by  the  writer  that  magnesium  oxide  which  was  strongly 
compressed  with  an  intimate  mixture  of  fibrous  asbestos  gave  the  most 
satisfactory  woody  texture  of  any  of  the  otherwise  suitable  cements.  If 
properly  hydrated,  it  gave  a  product  which  was  strong,  fairly  light  and 
could  be  worked  with  wood-working  tools,  though  not  so  readily  as  even 
such  hard  woods  as  oak.  The  magnesium  hydroxide  combines  in  part  at 
least  with  the  magnesium  silicate  of  the  fibre,  and  a  portion  of  the  re- 
mainder assumes  a  form  not  unlike  the  mineral  brucite.  Even  after  the 
lapse  of  five  years  the  absorption  of  carbon  dioxide  has  been  very  slight  in 
specimens  which  have  been  exposed  to  the  water.  Deville  reported  many 
years  ago  a  somewhat  similiar  experience  with  paste  of  magnesium  hy- 
droxide and  sand  which  he  analyzed  after  a  six-year  exposure.  The 


378  THE    MANUFACTURE    AND    USE    OF    ASBESTOS    WOOD 

strength  and  hardness  of  magnesium  hydroxide  compare  favorably  with 
the  more  common  hydraulic  cements,  and  since  its  volume  is  considerably 
greater,  it  is  more  effective  as  a  binder  for  the  bulky  fibrous  materials. 
The  process  of  making  the  magnesia  or  hydraulic  cement  boards  into 
sheets  with  the  short  asbestos  waste  involves  the  use  of  a  special  type  of 
filter  press,  which  has  been  slowly  and  laboriously  developed.  The  first 
sheets  were  made  in  the  Laboratory  of  Heat  Measurements  in  a  press  cap- 
able of  exerting  a  total  pressure  of  about  300  pounds.  As  the  process  has 
developed,  the  presses  have  been  increased  until  now  the  largest  has  a 
capacity  of  thousands  of  tons,  capable  of  making  sheets  forty-two  inches 
by  ninety-six  inches  by  four  and  one-half  inches,  or  of  any  lesser  thick- 
ness down  to  one-eighth  of  an  inch.  The  speed  of  operation  is  such  that' 
the  sheet  is  pressed  and  in  position  on  the  drying  trucks  before  even  the! 
most  agile  Portland  cement  can  have  acquired  its  initial  set.  This  insures 
the  cement  setting  in  proper  contact  with  the  fibres  in  its  final  position  in 
the  mixture.  If  the  sheets  are  to  be  moulded  into  curved  shapes,  this 
necessitates  special  treatment  immediately  after  pressing. 

The  following  enumeration  of  physical  properties  of  the  material 
will  indicate  to  a  certain  extent  how  fully  our  hope  of  making  a  substi- 
tute for  wood  has  been  realized:  By  varying  the  proportions  of  our  mix- 
tures, the  separate  physical  properties  can  be  varied  somewhat.  In  the 
matter  of  weight  the  various  grades  of  asbestos  wood  vary  between  the 
limits  of  eight  and  thirteen  pounds  per  square  foot,  one  inch  thick  board 
measure.  This  is  somewhat  heavier  than  the  heaviest  of  wood.  In  the 
matter  of  strength  the  material  in  the  shape  of  boards  has  been  broken 
under  a  transverse  load  and  considerable  data  collected.  The  maximum 
fibre  stress  at  the  time  of  fracture  in  the  specimens  varies  between  5000f 
pounds  and  10,000  pounds,  the  more  dense  materials  with  the  least  percen- 
tage of  fibre  being  in  general  the  stronger.  The  tendency  of  the  material 
to  absorb  water  also  varies  somewhat  with  its  composition,  the  limits  being 
two  per  cent  for  the  most  dense  specimens  and  eighteen  per  cent  for  the 
softer  specimens,  which  are  to  be  bored,  turned  and  sawed. 

The  coefficient  of  thermal  conducitivity  of  a  number  of  specimens  has 
been  determined  in  the  Laboratory  of  Heat  Measurements  and  lies  between 
the  limits  of  fifty  and  thirty  B.T.U.  per  square  foot  per  one  inch  thick- 
ness per  one  degree  difference  in  twenty-four  hours.  In  C.G.S.  units  the 
value  is  .0006  to  .0004  calories  per  centimeter  thickness  per  square  centi- 
meter per  one  degree  C.  per  second.  No  very  extensive  measurements  of 
the  coefficients  of  expansion  have  yet  been  made,  but  such  experiments  as 
we  have  indicate  that  its  coefficient  of  expansion  increases  as  the  tern- 


CHAELES    L.    NORTON,   >93  379 

perature  rises,  reaches  a  maximum  at  about  800  degrees  C.  and  then  di- 
minishes. The  strength  of  asbestos  wood  is  materially  weakened  at  red 
heat,  though  it  retains  a  portion  of  its  strength  and  holds  shape  well  for1 
exposures  at  650  to  700  degrees  C.  At  1200  degrees  C.  or  thereabouts 
it  melts. 

For  some  uses,  particularly  where  high  voltages  are  used,  the  absorp- 
tion of  water  by  the  ordinary  asbestos  wood  is  too  great  to  enable  it  to 
give  satisfactory  service.  It  has  been  found  possible  to  saturate  the  asbestos 
wood  with  certain  insulating  materials,  which  greatly  increase  its  value 
as  an  electrical  insulator.  Its  water  absorption  then  becomes  negligi- 
ble, amounting  to  only  two  or  three-tenths  of  one  per  cent  even  on  pro- 
longed immersion.  Professor  Laws  has  made  some  extensive  studies  of 
this  insulating  material,  which  we  call  ebony  asbestos  wood,  and  he  finds 
that  its  insulation  resistance  in  thicknesses  from  one-quarter  of  an  inch  up 
to  two  inches  is  in  all  cases  greater  than  150,000  megohms.  This  of  course 
means  little  more  than  that  its  insulation  is  very  high, — sufficiently  high 
for  all  commercial  work  and  above  the  limit  at  which  the  laboratory  appa- 
ratus gives  precise  measurements.  The  puncturing  voltage  of  the  ebony 
asbestos  wood  is  high,  sheets  of  a  thickness  of  one-quarter  inch  breaking 
down  at  about  20,000  volts,  while  sheets  one  and  one-half  inches  thick 
withstand  successfully  a  pressure  of  100,000  volts.  The  material  has  found 
a  very  considerable  use  as  a  substitute  for  slate  and  marble,  even  for  very; 
large  switchboards.  Its  greater  toughness  and  the  ease  with  which  it  can 
be  worked,  its  freedom  from  any  tendency  to  crack  on  unequal  heating, 
have  made  it  more  available  than  either  slate  or  marble  for  many  electrical 
uses.  Its  toughness  has  made  it  available  where  there  is  considerable  shock 
or  tremor,  as,  for  instance,  as  a  base  for  circuit  breakers  and  for  the  switch- 
boards in  electric  locomotives. 

Among  the  articles  of  wood  which  are  most  to  be  condemned  because 
of  their  tendency  to  cause  and  spread  fire  is  the  common  wooden  shingle. 
In  this  connection  shingles  made  of  asbestos  and  cement  mixtures  afford 
very  many  advantages.  They  are  much  less  absorbent  of  water  than  is 
wood ;  they  are  of  course  fireproof ;  they  are  not  brittle  like  slate,  and  they 
do  not  rust  or  require  paint  like  tin.  One  of  the  latest  developments  of 
our  asbestos  wood  industry  has  been  the  extensive  manufacture  of  shingles 
which,  I  believe,  are  going  to  save  the  community  by  diminishing  the  fire 
loss,  very  many  times  what  this  somewhat  lengthy  experimentation  has  cost. 


THE  TECHNICS  OF  IKON  AND  STEEL 

By  THEODORE  W.  ROBINSON,  '84, 
First  Vice-President,  Illinois  Steel  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 

THE  basis  of  modern  civilization  is  the  increased  productiveness  of 
labor  and  the  accumulated  wealth  that  has  resulted  from  the  universal 
use  .of  iron  and  steel.  The  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel  represents  a 
comprehensive  application  of  scientific  research  and  discovery,  and  the 
indebtedness  of  society  to  our  institutions  of  technical  learning  is  exem- 
plified in  no  more  forceful  way  than  by  their  influence  upon  our  most  im- 
portant industry.  Human  progress  since  medieval  times  has  been  closely 
allied  with  iron  progress.  The  essential  elements  of  existence  have  ever 
been  food,  raiment,  habitation  and  transportation,  and  the  difference  be- 
tween our  modern  conditions  and  the  conditions  of  the  past  is  fundamen- 
tally the  difference  of  the  labor  efficiency  with  which  these  necessities  are 
produced.  Closely  analyze  all  the  fields  of  human  endeavor,  and,  whether 
it  be  in  the  essentials  of  existence  or  the  luxuries  of  life,  somewhere  the 
world's  greatest  metal  will  be  found  playing  a  vital  part.  The  political 
demarcation  of  nations  has  been  wrought  and  maintained  by  the  war  pro- 
ducts of  the  foundry  and  the  forge,  but  it  is  in  the  realm  of  industry  that 
there  has  been  found  that  potency  of  iron  which  has  caused  the  progress 
of  the  last  century  to  surpass  the  accomplishments  of  twenty  centuries. 
Let  him  who  questions  this  statement  compare  the  average  conditions  of 
living  within  these  periods,  and  let  him  recall  that  the  revolutionary  in- 
ventions of  modern  civilization  are  directly  due  to  or  have  been  permitted 
by  the  use  of  our  most  precious  metal. 

It  is  manifestly  impossible  in  a  brief  address  to  trace  the  evolution  of 
the  iron  and  steel  industry,  much  less  to  attempt  a  detailed  description  of 
the  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel.  We  may,  however,  briefly  discuss  some 
of  the  salient  changes  and  economies  that  have  taken  place  within  the  past 
fifty  years.  The  underlying  principles  of  the  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel 
are  the  same  to-day  as  they  were  half  a  century  ago.  The  mining  of  ore,  of 
coal,  and  of  limestone ;  the  manufacture  of  coke ;  the  smelting  of  these  raw 

380 


THEODOKE    W.    EOBINSON,   '84  381 

materials  into  pig  iron;  the  refining  of  pig  iron  into  wrought  iron  or 
steel,  and  its  rolling  or  forging  into  the  finished  product; — all  these  steps 
are  essentially  the  same  as  they  were  before;  and  the  blast  furnace,  con- 
verter, open  hearth  furnace  and  rolling  mill  are  still  the  agents  of  reduction 
and  conversion.  No  industry  has  been  more  ready  to  recognize  the  merits 
of  discovery  and  invention,  or  quicker  to  reap  the  benefits;  and  a  well 
equipped  iron  and  steel  plant  is  to-day  the  very  embodiment  of  applied 
science.  To  this  is  due  the  fact  that  as  measured  by  quality,  quantity, 
cost  and  diversity  of  product,  the  efficiency  of  former  operations  has  been 
revolutionized. 

It  is  of  interest  to  briefly  record  the  progress  made  in  this  country  in 
the  manufacture  of  iron  prior  to  1860,  partially  that  we  may  have  a  better 
conception  of  the  remarkable  development  that  has  followed.  The  first  pig 
iron  made  in  America  was  manufactured  in  1644  at  Lynn,  about  ten  miles 
from  Boston,  and  there,  too,  was  refined  the  first  bar  iron  made  in  this 
country.  The  capitalization  of  this  pioneer  enterprise  was  $5,000,  and  a 
skilled  workman  commanded  a  wage  of  about  fifty-five  cents  a  day.  Re- 
ferring to  this  industry,  Governor  Winthrop  said  that  "  the  iron  work  goes 
on  with  more  hope,  it  yields  now  about  seven  tons  per  week."  Such  was 
the  inception  of  the  American  iron  and  steel  industry;  and  with  the  little 
plant  at  Lynn  as  a  nucleus  Massachusetts  for  a  hundred  years  after  the 
settlement  at  Plymouth  was  the  chief  seat  of  this  country's  activity.  To 
the  Boston  Iron  Works  the  credit  is  due  of  rolling  in  1846  some  of  the 
first  iron  T  rails  ever  produced  in  America,  and  fifty  years  ago  Mass- 
achusetts was  still  one  of  the  most  important  centers  of  our  nail  industry. 
Even  at  this  later  period  our  iron  plants  consisted  of  small  units  of  mine 
and  mill  located  throughout  the  country  with  special  reference  to  the  prox- 
imity of  local  ores,  fuel  and  water  power  facilities. 

But  the  industry  was  expanding,  and  the  year  before  the  Massachu- 
setts Institute  of  Technology  was  founded  America  produced  a  little  over 
900,000  tons  of  pig  iron.  An  index  of  the  accomplishment  of  fifty  years 
prior  and  subsequent  to  1860  is  had  in  the  1810  production  of  54,000  tons 
of  pig  iron,  as  against  over  27,000,000  tons  of  pig  iron  produced  in  1910. 
Such  a  phenomenal  growth  has,  of  course,  been  made  possible  by  our  wealth 
of  natural  resource;  but  raw  material  is  of  but  potential  value  until  won 
by  the  arts  of  industry,  and  even  when  converted  is  largely  valueless  until 
transported  to  its  point  of  consumption.  Cheap  conveyance  is  a  vital 
factor,  and  the  beneficent  influence  of  iron  and  steel  upon  the  progress  of 
prosperity  of  this  nation  and  of  the  world  finds  no  more  striking  exempli- 
fication than  in  its  use  in  the  art  of  transportation.  "Without  the  steel  rail 


382  THE    TECHNICS    OF    IKON    AND    STEEL 

our  prairies,  forests  and  mines  would  still  largely  lie  in  their  pristine  glory 
and  the  interior  fastnesses  of  the  continents  would  be  inviolate.  Fifty 
years  ago  this  country  had  but  thirty  thousand  miles  of  railroad.  Trans- 
portation was  expensive,  slow  and  served  little  more  than  the  important 
centers.  The  Pacific  coast  was  many  weeks  distant  from  the  Atlantic 
seaboard  and  the  stage-coach  and  the  pony  express  were  essential  elements 
of  communication.  The  maximum  capacity  of  the  freight  cars  on  the 
Penns.ylvania  Railroad  was  nine  tons,  and  our  waterways  largely  dominated 
our  commerce  and  industry.  To-day  our  country  is  served  by  240,000  miles 
of  railroad;  our  freight  cars  are  of  fifty  and  even  100  tons  capacity  and 
the  cost  of  transportation  has  been  so  lowered  that  the  average  remunera- 
tion of  at  least  one  of  our  large  systems  is  less  than  five  mills  per  ton  mile. 
The  effect  of  these  changes  is  partially  indicated  by  the  23,000,000  immi- 
grants who  have  come  to  this  country  since  1860,  by  the  increase  of  60,- 
000,000  in  our  inhabitants,  and  by  the  rapid  movement  westward  of  the 
center  of  our  population. 

But  how  comes  it  that  in  the  short  span  of  less  than  a  generation 
such  strides  could  be  made  in  an  industry  which  has  basicly  changed  but 
little?  The  npplication  of  scientific  research  is  alone  responsible  and  it 
is  primarily  responsible  because  it  made  possible  the  economic  develop- 
ment of  the  Bessemer  and  open  hearth  processes,  which  were  given  to  the 
world  a  few  years  prior  to  1860.  The  Bessemer  process  was  a  metallur- 
gical failure  until  Mushet's  discovery  of  the  efficacy  of  carbon  and  man- 
ganese addition,  and  it  could  not  have  been  a  commercial  success  with- 
out the  mechanical  improvements  of  many  later  workers  in  the  field.  The 
success  of  the  open  hearth  was  even  slower.  The  development  of  the  steel 
industry  accentuated  the  necessity  of  exact  methods.  The  comparatively 
rough  and  ready  way  of  producing  wrought  iron  would  not  answer  for  the 
more  difficult  accomplishment  of  high  grade  steel.  As  it  became  recognized 
that  the  price  of  success  was  the  scientific  vigilance  of  technical  men,  the 
chemist,  the  metallurgist,  the  mechanical  engineer,  the  steam  engineer  and 
the  electrical  engineer,  all  became  essential  factors.  In  the  early  stages, 
tonnage,  as  an  essential  element  of  cost,  was  a  main  consideration.  Now 
quality  stands  first,  and  while  tonnage  has  gone  on  apace,  the  strict  in- 
spection that  commands  production  to-day  subordinates  volume  to  character. 
Under  our  superlative  wealth  of  natural  resource  and  under  the  insistent 
demand  for  maximum  output,  the  questions  of  waste  and  conservation  were 
secondary  questions,  and  the  returns  from  the  utilization  of  by-produtcs 
were  not  thought  commensurate  with  the  time  and  money  involved.  But 
scientific  management  has  brought  about  a  new  order  of  things ;  the  selec- 


THEODOKE    W.    EOBINSON;  '84  383 

tion  and  use  of  the  raw  materials  entering  into  the  manufacture  are  all  sub- 
ject to  the  analysis  and  control  of  the  chemical  laboratory.  Chemistry  is 
the  monitor  of  the  various  steps  in  the  transformation  of  ore  to  the  finished 
product,  and  with  the  physical  laboratory  stands  sponsor  for  both  the 
twelve-inch  gun  and  the  almost  invisible  wire  that  is  drawn  through  the 
diamond  die.  Nearly  every  domain  of  science  is  called  upon.  The  knowl- 
edge and  control  of  heat  are  fundamental  in  the  development  of  power 
and  in  the  reduction  and  fabrication  of  steel.  The  essence  of  economic 
production  lies  in  an  intelligent  application  of  the  laws  of  hydraulics, 
hydrostatics,  thermo-dynamics,  and  strength  of  materials.  Electricity  and 
magnetism  play  a  prominent  part  in  the  transmission  of  power  and  illu- 
mination, and  the  refining  of  steel  by  electric  energy  is  a  departure  destined 
to  have  an  important  future. 

A  modern  steel  plant  is  indeed  a  complex  but  wonderfully  efficient 
machine.  The  remarkable  influence  that  steel  has  exerted  in  the  last  cen- 
tury has  been  made  possible  by  the  radical  reduction  in  its  cost  of  manu- 
facture. The  price  of  steel  rails  affords  a  measure  of  what  has  been  ac- 
complished in  this  regard.  Less  than  fifty  years  ago  steel  rails  made  their 
advent  in  this  country  at  an  equivalent  of  approximately  eight  cents  per 
pound.  To-day  rails  sell  for  one  and  one-fourth  cents  per  pound,  or  less 
than  one-sixth  of  their  former  cost.  While  the  reduction  in  cost  during 
the  last  decade  is  naturally  proportionately  less  than  in  the  few  decades 
that  preceded,  it  is  significant  that  in  spite  of  the  general  increase  in  the 
prices  of  commodities  the  relative  price  of  steel  in  this  country,  as  shown 
by  the  commodity  index,  has  continued  to  decrease  in  recent  years.  It  is 
an  eloquent  testimonial  to  the  efficiency  of  modern  methods  and  to  the 
conservatism  of  our  iron  masters  that  this  has  been  accomplished  in  spite 
of  the  decreasing  richness  of  our  ores  and  a  substantial  increase  in  the 
cost  of  both  labor  and  material. 

In  studying  the  causes  of  our  cost  reductions,  two  prominent  factors 
appear.  First,  the  fuel  required  to  convert  ore  into  finished  product  has 
been  largely  reduced;  second,  the  intensity  of  production,  which  roughly 
measures  the  increased  efficiency  of  labor,  has  been  enormously  increased. 
At  the  mine,  in  transportation,  at  the  furnace  and  in  the  mill,  machinery 
has  taken  the  place  of  men,  and  a  man  in  the  steel  industry  to-day  accom- 
plishes from  ten  to  fifty  times  as  much  work  as  did  his  predecessor  fifty 
years  ago. 

In  1860  a  thousand  tons  of  pig  iron  per  month  was  an  extraordinary 
production  for  a  blast  furnace,  and  one  and  a  half  gross  tons  of  coke  was 
required  for  each  gross  ton  of  pig  iron  produced.  To-day  an  output  of 


384  THE    TECHNICS    OF    IKON   AND    STEEL 

18,000  tons  per  month  from  a  single  furnace  excites  little  comment,  and 
the  average  coke  consumption  of  the  modern  American  furnace  is  a  gross 
ton  of  coke  for  each  ton  of  pig  iron.  This  increase  in  tonnage  and 
decrease  in  fuel  is  the  result  of  the  uniformity  and  enlargement  that  has  fol- 
lowed scientific  management  and  not  because  of  any  radical  departure  in 
blast  furnace  practice.  In  the  refining  of  pig  iron  the  gas  producer,  the  re- 
generative furnace,  the  hot  metal  mixer,  and  the  improvement  in  our  prime 
movers  have  been  important  elements  in  the  reduction  of  fuel;  but  it  is 
mainly  due  to  the  substitution  of  the  open  hearth  and  the  Bessemer  con- 
verter for  the  puddle  furnace  that  we  are  able  to  produce  steel  with  nearly 
one-fourth  less  coal  than  was  formerly  required  to  produce  iron.  Our 
prime  movers  fifty  years  ago  consisted  essentially  of  slide  valve  steam  en- 
gines in  conjunction  with  low  pressure  flue  boilers,  having  an  over-all 
efficiency  of  but  four  to  five  per  cent  of  the  total  heat  in  the  fuel  realized 
as  work  in  the  engine.  To-day  high  pressure  water  tube  boilers  and  com- 
pound condensing  engines  with  efficient  valve  gear  have  more  than  doubled 
the  thermal  efficiency,  and  the  combination  low  pressure  steam  turbine  and 
non-condensing  compound  steam  engine  gives  us  a  thermal  efficiency  of 
even  sixteen  per  cent.  In  other  words,  with  such  an  installation,  one  ton 
of  fuel  can  do  the  work  formerly  accomplished  by  four  tons  of  fuel. 

The  introduction  of  the  gas  engine  marks  another  epoch  in  power 
production.  With  a  thermal  efficiency  of  twenty-five  per  cent,  a  given  quan- 
tity of  blast  furnace  gas  produces  in  the  gas  engine  at  least  twice  the  amount 
of  power  obtainable  with  the  modern  boiler  and  steam  engine.  The  gas 
engine  when  combined  with  the  electric  generator  permits  the  highest  devel- 
opment in  plant  concentration  and  in  the  production  and  transmission  of 
power.  With  modern  equipment  the  blast  furnace  produces  a  surplus 
amount  of  gas  over  and  above  its  own  heat  and  power  requirements  equiva- 
lent to  at  least  500  pounds  of  coal  for  each  ton  of  iron  produced.  A  notable 
example  of  the  efficient  use  of  blast  furnace  gas  as  a  by-product  is  presented 
in  the  new  Gary,  Indiana,  plant  of  the  United  States  Steel  Corporation. 
There  has  been  erected  or  is  in  process  of  installation  over  100,000  horse- 
power in  gas  engine  units  varying  from  2500  horse-power  to  4000  horse- 
power each,  and  the  contemplated  plant  when  finished  will  have  more  than 
200,000  horse-power  in  gas  engines  using  blast  furnace  gas.  These,  when 
aided  by  the  surplus  gas  from  the  connected  by-product  coke  ovens,  will  not 
only  furnish  all  the  heat,  light  and  power  required  for  all  the  mill  depart- 
ments, practically  without  the  aid  of  coal,  but  will  afford,  as  well,  a  sub- 
stantial surplus  available  for  neighboring  industries. 

It  can  be  readily  appreciated,  therefore,  that  the  aggregate  saving  of 


THEODORE    W.    ROBINSON,    '84  385 

fuel  in  the  iron  and  steel  industry  must  be  enormous,  and  one  whose  effect 
upon  the  conservation  of  the  nation's  coal  supply  must  be  important.  The 
following  figures  based  upon  actual  practice  give  an  approximation  of 
what  this  annual  saving  amounts  to.  Last  year  the  United  States  pro- 
duced 27,298,545  tons  of  pig  iron  and  25,917,281  tons  of  Bessemer  and 
open  hearth  steel.  Had  the  same  coke  ratio  been  required  to  smelt  this  pig 
iron  as  that  required  in  1860  we  should  have  used  23,000,000  net  tons  of 
coal  more  than  we  actually  did  use.  Moreover,  had  the  pig  iron  which  was 
converted  into  steel  last  year  been  converted  into  wrought  iron,  we  should 
have  consumed  33,000,000  tons  more  coal  than  that  which  was  actually 
burned.  The  measure,  then,  of  last  year's  fuel  economy  in  our  iron  and 
steel  industry  was  approximately  56,000,000  tons  of  coal.  But  this  is  not 
all.  The  production  of  coke  in  the  United  States  last  year  was  about 
41,000,000  net  tons,  made  mostly  in  the  bee-hive  oven.  Had  this  same  ton- 
nage of  coke  been  produced  in  by-product  coke  ovens,  ten  million  tons 
less  coal  would  have  been  required  and  there  would  have  been  an  additional 
saving  of  by-products  in  surplus  gas,  tar  and  ammonia  of  a  value  of 
$39,000,000.  Basing  our  calculation  on  1910  production  and  giving  coal 
an  arbitrary  value  of  a  dollar  a  ton,  these  savings  in  the  iron. and  steel  and 
coke  industries  amount  to  $107,000,000  per  year,  as  the  sum  of  what  we 
have  done  and  what  we  will  shortly  do  toward  the  conservation  of  our  coal 
supply. 

Such  are  some  of  the  savings  that  have  permitted  our  manufactured 
products  to  successfully  enter  the  markets  of  the  world.  The  United 
States  has  been  one  of  the  world's  great  granaries.  The  United  States  is 
now  one  of  the  world's  great  workshops.  Fifty  years  ago  our  exported 
foodstuffs  surpassed  in  value  the  exports  of  all  our  manufactured  products. 
To-day  the  value  of  our  manufactured  products  sold  abroad  largely  exceeds 
the  value  of  the  shipments  from  our  farms.  In  1860  we  exported  iron  and 
steel  to  the  value  of  $6,000,000.  Last  year  we  contributed  $179,000,000  in 
iron  and  steel  to  the  markets  of  the  world. 

While  we  are  largely  indebted  to  the  development  of  the  natural  sciences 
for  such  results,  the  technics  of  iron  and  steel  embrace  a  wider  field.  The 
science  of  modern  organization  and  the  ethics  of  management  represent  in 
themselves  as  marked  a  departure  as  we  find  in  the  actual  operations  of  our 
works. 

Half  a  century  ago  the  ownership  and  control  of  our  iron  works  lay 
in  partnerships  or  in  small  corporations.  Plants  were  small  and  compara- 
tively numerous.  There  was  close  contact  between  employer  and  employee 
and  the  workmen  were  few  and  their  duties  correspondingly  varied.  The 


386  THE    TECHNICS    OF    IEON    AND    STEEL 

economies  of  specialization,  intensity  and  concentration  were  largely 
unknown  or  impractical. 

To-day  our  mines  and  mills  are  principally  controlled  by  large  cor- 
porations. Ownership  stands  in  thousands  of  small  and  widely  scattered 
stockholders  and  policy  and  operation  are  guided  by  their  representatives. 
Plants  are  large  and  intensified  production  is  commanded  by  armies  of 
skilled  men  working  with  specialized  machinery. 

In  achieving  high  efficiency  and  resultant  low  costs,  the  large  corpora- 
tion is  an  economic  necessity.  Its  effectiveness  in  the  elimination  of  waste 
is  the  power  of  large  financial  resource  and  concentrated  direction.  There 
is  no  better  exemplification  of  the  composite  force  of  many  owners  than  the 
plant  and  town  of  Gary.  This,  our  latest-  and  most  extensive  plant,  has 
arisen  in  four  years  from  the  unbroken  sand  dunes  of  lower  Lake  Michigan, 
and  is  a  striking  illustration  of  the  possibility  of  $55,000,000  expended  by 
a  highly  developed  organization. 

But  the  change  that  has  come  with  our  modern  system  is  more  than  in 
the  material  improvement  of  plant  and  machinery.  There  has  followed  a 
clearer  conception  of  the  relationship  of  the  public,  the  wage  earner  and 
the  investor.  Industrial  success  means  loyalty  and  team  work,  and  intelli- 
gent management  appreciates  that  profits,  if  they  are  to  be  sustained,  must 
not  be  preferential  to  justice  and  humane  treatment.  Cooperation  with 
one's  competitors,  pension  funds  for  the  superannuated,  systematic  en- 
deavor for  the  prevention  of  accidents,  voluntary  compensation  for  the 
injured,  recognition  of  faithful  service,  elimination  of  Sunday  work,  profit- 
sharing,  sanitary  surroundings,  the  club,  the  hospital — all  these  are  man- 
ifestations of  a  humane  and  efficient  policy. 

Business  administration  in  our  complex  industrial  life  embodies  many 
elements  beside  the  natural  sciences.  There  is  the  science  of  men  as 
well  as  the  science  of  machines,  and  both  are  necessary  for  the  broadest 
type  of  industrial  efficiency. 

A  training  that  is  either  too  cultural  or  too  specialized  does  not  har- 
monize with  present  requirements  and  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of 
Technology,  in  recognizing  the  commercial  as  well  as  the  technical  needs 
of  the  times,  is  but  maintaining  her  tradition  for  progressive  thought  and 
leadership  in  method. 


SECTION  E 
PUBLIC  HEALTH  AND  SANITATION 


PROFITABLE  AND  FRUITLESS  LINES  OF  ENDEAVOR  IN 
PUBLIC  HEALTH  WORK 

By  EDWIN  O.  JORDAN,  '88, 
Professor  of  Bacteriology,  University  of  Chicago,  Chicago,   111. 

IT  is  well  recognized  to-day  by  many  experts  that  while  some  of  the 
ordinary  activities  of  municipal  health  departments  are  of  unquestionable 
value  in  conserving  the  health  of  a  community,  others  are  relatively  in- 
effective or  possibly  worthless. 

This  condition,  as  a  rule,  is  not  due  to  ignorance  on  the  part  of  health 
officials,  but  to  the  pressure  of  public,  opinion'.  Such  pressure  is  often 
exerted  directly  through  legal  ordinances  passed  by  uninformed  legislative 
bodies,  but  sometimes  also  through  agitation  by  mistaken  enthusiasts  or 
through  other  channels  of  public  opinion.  Back  of  the  A*7hole  situation  is 
the  existence  in  the  public  mind  of  wrong  or  antiquated  conceptions  of 
disease  and  the  causes  of  disease. 

Sanitarians  do  not  admit  that  even. a  grossly  improper  method  of 
garbage  disposal  can  have  much  to  do  with  the  spread  of  disease  in  a; 
sewered  city  or  that  diphtheria  or  typhoid  fever  or  any  other  disease  is 
properly  attributable  to  the  entrance  of  sewer  air  into  dwelling  houses. 
So  firmly  embedded  in  public  belief,  however,  is  the  connection  of  piles 
of  decaying  garbage  with  outbreaks  of  infectious  disease,  and  of  "  defective 
plumbing  "  with  all  sorts  of  maladies  that  to  the  average  citizen  "  garbage 
disposal"  and  "plumbing  inspection"  bulk  large  as  the  chief  if  not  the 
only  activities  of  a  municipal  health  department. 

In  the  light  of  our  present  knowledge  we  may  well  ask  what  are  the 
actual  dangers  to  health  from  these  two  sources?  It  is  now  well  known  to 
bacteriologists  that  disease  germs  do  not  "breed"  in  garbage  heaps,  but 
that  on  the  contrary  if  added  from  outside  they  speedily  die  off.  The 
offensive  odors  of  decomposition  may  be  unpleasant  and  undesirable ;  there 
is  no  evidence  that  they  produce  disease  or  dispose  to  disease.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  may  be  argued  that  the  existence  of  heaps  of  decomposing  organic 
matter  tends  to  maintain  or  create  general  habits  of  uncleanliriess.  which 
themselves  are  detrimental  in  a  roundabout  way  to  the  health  of  a  com- 
munity. And  again  it  is  known  that  the  house-fly  may  breed  in  garbage 

389 


390  PKOFITABLE    AND    FKUITLESS    LINUS    OF    ENDEAVOE 

piles,  particularly  if  horse  manure  is  present,  and  that  under  certain  con- 
ditions this  noxious  insect  may  become  the  bearer  of  disease  germs  to  food. 
But  when  the  worst  is  said  it  must  be  admitted  that  the  known  danger  to 
health  from  garbage  piles  and  "dumps"  is  relatively  insignificant  com- 
pared with  the  danger  from  other  well-known  but  less  popularly  feared 
sources. 

The  truth  is  that  garbage  disposal  in  large  cities  is  more  a  matter 
of  municipal  housekeeping  than  of  public  health;  proper  methods  of  gar- 
bage collection  and  destruction  must  be  urged  rather  from  economic  and 
esthetic  considerations  than  on  hygienic  grounds. 

One  thing  should  be  clearly  understood  by  municipal  authorities  and 
by  the  general  public,  that  regular  collection  and  cleanly  handling  of  ashes 
and  table  scraps  is  not  one  of  the  surest  and  most  profitable  ways  of  pro- 
tecting health  and  preventing  disease.  Efficient  administration  of  this 
branch  of  public  work  should  not  be  allowed  to  take  the  place  of  measures 
that  directly  affect  the  public  health. 

Few  dangers  to  health  have  loomed  larger  in  the  public  eye  than  that, 
from  "  sewer  gas."  Elaborate  and  amazingly  expensive  systems  of  plumb- 
ing are  required  by  law  to  be  installed  in  every  newly  erected  dwelling 
house  in  our  large  American  cities.  Plumbing  inspection  to-day  occupies 
a  large  part  of  the  working  force  of  many  municipal  health  departments. 
In  Baltimore  in  1908,  to  cite  a  single  instance,  this  work  was  carried  out 
by  one  inspector  of  plumbing,  seven  assistant  inspectors  of  plumbing  and 
one  drain  inspector,  at  a  total  salary  cost  of  $8,250,  or  about  one-tenth 
of  the  total  salary  appropriation  for  all  public  health  work.  And  yet,  if 
all  the  most  recent  and  searching  investigations,  such  as  those  of  Winslow 
and  others  are  to  be  believed,  the  actual  peril  to  health  involved  in  the  en- 
trance of  small  quantities  of  sewer  air  into  houses  is  so  small  as  to  be 
practically  negligible.  A  revision  and  simplification  of  municipal  plumb- 
ing regulations,  a  minimizing  of  official  inspection  and  especially  an  educa- 
tion of  the  public  to  the  fact  that  diphtheria,  typhoid  fever  and  scarlet 
fever  have  never  been  definitely  traced  to  sewer  air  or  bad  plumbing  are 
reform  measures  that  might  release  a  considerable  sum  of  public  money 
for  use  in  really  profitable  lines  of  sanitary  endeavor. 

In  the  matter  of  heating  and  ventilation  enormous  sums  have  been 
spent  and  are  being  spent  to  "  renew  "  the  air  in  rooms  and  public  assembly 
halls  and  to  introduce  "  pure  air  "  in  what  has  been  assumed  to  be  necessary 
amounts.  And  yet  if  the  work  of  Beu,1  Heymann,  Paul,  Erclentz,  Fliigge,2 

1  Zeitschr.  f.  Hyg.,  1893,  14,  p.  64. 
2Zcitsc1ir.  /.  Hyg.t  1905,  49,  p.  363. 


EDWIN    O.    JOKDAN,   '88  391 

Leonard  Hill  and  others  means  anything  it  demonstrates  that  the  whole 
effect  from  "bad  air"  and  crowded  rooms  is  due  to  heat  and  moisture 
and  not  to  carbon  dioxide  or  to  any  poisonous  excretions  in  expired  air  It 
may  well  be  asked  whether  the  elaborate  legal  regulations  governing  the 
"  supply  "  of  air  and  the  cubic  feet  of  bedroom  space  have  a  real  basis  in 
scientific  knowledge.  If  over-heating,  moisture-content  and  stagnation  of 
the  air  are  the  chief  things  to  be  avoided,  may  this  end  not  be  reached  more 
effectively  and  less  expensively  than  by  present  methods? 

One  conspicuous  function  at  present  required  of  or  voluntarily  exer- 
cised by  health  departments  is  the  practice  of  terminal  disinfection  after 
cases  of  infectious  disease.  This  has  come  to  play  a  large  part  in  municipal 
health  activities  and  is  responsible  for  an  important  share  of  the  expense. 
In  Boston,  for  example,  in  1909,  about  one-tenth  of  the  annual  appropria- 
tion was  expended  for  disinfection.  One  of  the  most  experienced  New 
England  city  health  officers  has  recently  seriously  questioned  the  value  of 
such  an  expenditure.1  After  a  study  of  the  ratio  of  recurrences  in  certain 
diseases  he  concludes  that,  "  Both  theory  and  facts,  so  far  as  any  data  are 
available,  indicate  that  terminal  disinfection  after  diphtheria  and  scarlet 
fever  is  of  no  appreciable  value."  This  view  has  met  with  strong  support 
from  the  experience  of  a  number  of  English  health  officials,  even  if  it 
cannot  be  regarded  as  conclusively  proved. 

Other  instances  of  the  application  of  energy  and  money  to  measures 
apparently  of  slight  or  doubtful  value  might  be  cited,  but  those  already 
given  are  fairly  typical.  The  question  that  should  be  asked  in  every 
case  is  not  whether  a  particular  measure  is  entirely  devoid  of  value,  but 
whether  it  is  the  most  effective  way  of  utilizing  available  resources.  As 
matters  now  stand  there  are  a  number  of  unquestionably  valuable  measures 
that  can  not  be  prosecuted  with  sufficient  vigor  because  of  the  enforced 
diversion  of  funds  into  other  and  less  profitable  channels. 

The  importance  of  control  and  supervision  of  the  sources  of  public 
W3,ter  supply  has  long  been  recognized,  but  the  importance  of  controlling 
the  quality  of  the  public  milk  supply,  although  frequently  urged  by  sani- 
tarians, is  not  always  appreciated.  At  the  present  time  in  the  great  ma- 
jority of  American  cities  it  is  safe  to  say  that  for  every  case  of  infectious! 
disease  due  to  drinking  water  ten  cases  are  caused  by  infected  milk. 
It  is  difficult  to  secure  adequate  funds  for  the  sanitary  control  of  the 
milk  supply.  Whatever  method  of  control  be  adopted,  it  is  certain  that 
any  genuine  improvement  in  the  character  of  a  milk  supply  will  be  followed 
in  the  long  run  by  a  lessening  in  the  amount  of  typhoid  fever,  diphtheria, 
1  Chapin,  Jour.  Amer.  Public  Health  Assoc.,  1911,  1,  p.  32.  . 


392  PEOFITABLE    AND    FRUITLESS    LINES    OF    ENDEAVOR 

scarlet  fever  and  to  some  extent  tuberculosis.  In  other  words,  the  connec- 
tion between  an  expenditure  of  public  money  and  a  direct  return  in  preven- 
tion of  disease  can  be  more  clearly  demonstrated  in  the  case  of  milk-supply 
control  than  in  some  other  of  the  usual  municipal  health  department 
activities. 

One  of  the  important  bacteriological  advances  of  the  last  few  years  has 
been  the  discovery  that  a  considerable  number  of  healthy  persons,  conva- 
lescents or  others,  harbor  disease  germs  and  that  these  persons  are  important 
agents  in  spreading  disease.  The  detention  and  proper  treatment  of 
disease-germ  carriers,  particularly  in  the  more  serious  diseases  and  before 
or  in  the  early  stages  of  an  epidemic,  is  now  recognized  as  an  important 
although  difficult  task.  The  whole  question  of  the  control  of  germ-carriers 
is  one  that  needs  more  careful  study  with  a  view  to  determining  the  actual 
results  of  the  methods  adopted.  From  this  point  of  view,  inspection  of 
school  children,  especially  at  the  beginning  of  the  school  year,  is  probably 
to  be  classed  as  a  highly  profitable  activity,  although  it  is  to  be  wished  that 
fuller  and  better-studied  statistics  were  available. 

Inspection  of  school  children  is  highly  valuable,  also,  in  detecting 
various  common  congenital  or  acquired  defects.  If  the  defects  are  remedi- 
able, their  early  discovery  may  avoid  development  into  permanently  crip- 
pling disorders.  In  other  cases,  the  application  of  simple  corrective  or 
palliative  measures  may  greatly  increase  the  industrial  efficiency  of  the 
individual.  If  the  defects  are  not  remediable,  their  detection  will  at  all 
events  prevent  the  choice  of  unsuitable  occupations,  and  will  indicate 
desirable  lines  of  education. 

In  rural  communities,  undoubtedly  one  of  the  simplest,  as  well  as  most 
important,  health  protective  measures  is  the  adoption  under  compulsion 
if  need  be,  of  a  safeguarded  and  standardized  form  of  barrel  privy.1  A 
corollary  hardly  necesary  to  mention  is  the  total  abolition  of  the  privy  in 
all  thickly  settled  towns.  For  lack  of  such  regulations  soil  pollution  occurs, 
the  house-fly  finds  an  opportunity  to  transfer  disease  germs  from  excreta 
to  food,  and  typhoid  fever  and  hookworm  disease  become  constant  plagues 
ever  wide  regions. 

In  the  campaign  against  tuberculosis  it  is  perhaps  too  early  to  evaluate 
the  numerous  methods  that  have  been  proposed  for  lessening  or  eradicating 
this  disease,  but  is  is  already  evident  that  some  are  more  directly  repaying 
than  others  in  proportion  to  the  effort  involved.  Among  the  methods  for 

1  See  Public  Health  Reports  for  1910,  published  by  the  Public  Health  and 
Marine  Hospital  Service,  articles  by  Stiles  and  Gardner,  and  Lumsden,  Roberts 
and  Stiles. 


EDWIN    O.    JOEDAN,    '88  393 

which  public  funds  are  legitimately  available  none  is  more  promising  than 
the  provision  of  sanatoria  for  advanced  cases  of  consumption.  ISTewsholme 
and  Koch  have  shown  that  the  general  diminution  in  the  death  rate  from 
tuberculosis  observed  in  most  countries  can  be  more  reasonably  attributed 
to  the  establishment  of  sanatoria  than  to  any  other  factor,  and  that  in 
addition  to  its  humanitarian  advantages,  the  segregation  and  proper  con- 
trol of  the  advanced  and  dangerously  infective  cases  is  one  of  the  most 
useful  methods  that  can  be  employed  by  the  community  to  protect  itself 
against  the  spread  of  tuberculosis  infection. 

Another  field  in  which  practical  workers  are  convinced  that  certain 
measures  have  direct  efficacy  in  saving  life  is  that  of  infant  mortality. 
It  has  even  been  said  that  for  the  expenditure  of  a  certain  sum  the  saving 
of  a  life  can  be  guaranteed.  It  may  confidently  be  asserted  that  the  degree 
of  success  achieved  in  this  field  will  be  limited  only  by  the  amount  of  en- 
deavor the  community  is  willing  to  put  forth. 

It  is  impossible  at  present  to  apply  direct  tests  of  efficiency  to  some 
measures  that  undoubtedly  promote  health.  The  influence  of  playgrounds, 
public  baths,  regulation  of  the  hours  of  labor  in  extra-arduous  industries 
and  the  like  is  real  if  it  cannot  be  accurately  determined  or  estimated. 
Certain  activities  of  a  health  department  may  be  worth  continuing  for  their 
educational  value,  although  their  direct  utility  may  be  questioned.  Many 
topics  need  investigation  in  order  to  discover  their  real  bearing  upon  the 
public  health.  Among  these  are  such  matters  as  the  effect  of  a  smoky 
atmosphere,  the  alleged  nervous  strain  due  to  city'  noise  and  numerous 
important  questions  in  the  domain  of  food  adulteration  and  contamination. 
Premature  and  drastic  action  by  health  authorities  in  matters  concerning 
which  there  is  profound  disagreement  among  experts  may  cast  discredit 
on  other  lines  of  activity  in  which  there  is  and  can  be  no  difference  of 
opinion. 

For  the  present  it  seems  worth  while  to  emphasize  more  sharply  than 
heretofore  the  distinction  between  public  health  measures  of  proved  value 
and  those  that  owe  their  existence  to  tradition  or  to  misdirected  and  un- 
informed enthusiasm.  Further  study  of  the  results  obtained  by  certain 
of  the  usual  and  conventional  health  department  activities  is  also  much 
needed,  and  as  a  preliminary  to  such  study  the  proper  collection  and  hand- 
ling of  vital  statistics  is  essential.  It  is  poor  management  and  unscientific 
procedure  to  continue  to  work  blindly  in  matters  pertaining  to  the  public 
health,  to  employ  measures  of  whose;  real  efficiency  we  are  ignorant  and 
even  to  refrain  from  collecting  facts  that  might  throw  light  upon  their 
efficiency. 


THE  TECHNICAL  SCHOOL  MAN  IN  PUBLIC  HEALTH  WOKK 

By  H.  W.  CLARK,  '87, 
Chief  Chemist,  State  Board  of  Health,  Boston,  Mass. 

PUBLIC  health  in  this  as  in  all  countries  has  been  a  subject  of  slow  and 
comparatively  recent  growth.  Beyond  a  few  laws  relating  to  smallpox 
and  drainage,  little  that  could  be  called  "  health  legislation  "  was  enacted 
in  America  until  well  into  the  nineteenth  century.  In  Massachusetts 
as  early  as  1799,  local  boards  of  health  were  established  at  Salem  and 
Boston  by  legislative  enactment,  but  not  until  seventy  years  later  did 
Massachusetts,  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  progressive  of  states  in  the 
enactment  of  wise  legislation,  organize  or  establish  a  State  Board  of  Health. 
As  early  as  1849,  however,  the  deplorable  condition  of  the  State  in  health 
matters,  together  with  the  fear  of  a  cholera  epidemic,  caused  the  legisla- 
ture to  enact  a  law  for  the  appointment  of  a  commission  to  make  what  was 
designated  "  a  sanitary  survey  of  the  State,  and  to  report  upon  the  same." 

The  report  made  by  this  commission  was  called  "  A  General  Plan  for 
the  Promotion  of  Public  Health  and  Personal  Health,  devised,  prepared 
and  recommended  by  the  Commissioners."  "  The  condition  of  perfect 
health/'  states  this  report,  "  requires  such  laws  and  regulations  as  will  secure 
to  man  associated  in  society,  the  same  sanitary  enjoyments  that  he  would 
have  as  an  isolated  individual  and  as  will  protect  him  from  injury  from  any 
influences  connected  with  his  locality,  his  dwelling-house,  his  occupation  or 
those  of  his  associates  or  neighbors,  or  from  other  social  causes.  It  is  under 
the  control  of  public  authority  and  public  administration  that  life  and 
health  may  be  saved  or  lost,  and  they  are  actually  saved  or  lost  as  this 
authority  is  wisely  or  unwisely  exercised." 

In  the  very  complete  and  remarkable  document  containing  the  results 
of  the  labors  of  this  commission,  many  branches  of  knowledge  then  little 
known  but  now  of  well-recognized  importance  in  sanitary  science,  are  in- 
vestigated and  discussed,  and  in  the  commissioners'  plea  for  the  formation 
of  a  State  Board  of  Health,  they  fully  described  the  varied  duties  of  such  a 
board  and  recommended  that  "the  board  as  far  as  practicable  be  composed 
of  two  physicians,  one  counsellor-at-law,  one  chemist  or  natural  philoso- 

394 


H.    W.    CLARK,    '87  395 

pher,  one  civil  engineer  and  two  persons  of  other  professions  or  occupations, 
all  properly  qualified  for  the  office  by  their  talents,  their  education,  their 
experience  and  their  wisdom." 

That  the  functions  of  a  sanitary  board  or  commission  charged  with 
the  many  varied  duties  necessary  for  the  proper  study  and  guardianship 
of  public  health  required  the  work  and  the  investigations  of  engineers 
and  chemists  as  well  as  of  medical  men,  was  here  clearly  recognized  and 
stated,  and  while  the  able  report  of  this  commission  was  pigeon-holed  for 
twenty  years  and  a  State  health  board  was  not  established  in  Massachusetts 
until  1869  and  not  separated  from  the  Board  of  Charities  until  1886,  yet 
when  fully  established  upon  its  present  basis.,  it  conformed  in  many  im- 
portant particulars  with  the  plans  of  the  Sanitary  Commission  of  1849. 
The  work  of  this  commission  and  its  voluminous  and  able  report  can  be 
justly  considered  as  the  beginning  of  sanitary  science  in  Massachusetts. 

Following  the  organization  of  the  board  in  1869,  chemists  were  em- 
ployed to  make  various  investigations  concerning  matters  affecting  the 
public  health.  Work  upon  food  adulteration  and  food  impurities  was 
reported  upon  in  1872,  and  this  work  was  continued  with  a  certain  degree 
of  intermittency  for  several  years.  A  report  upon  the  food  of  the  people 
of  Massachusetts  was  given  in  1873,  a  report  upon  the  adulteration  of 
milk  in  1875,  and  an  article  upon  the  adulteration  of  some  staple  groceries 
in  the  report  of  the  Board  for  1879,  this  latter  investigation  and  report 
being  made  by  the  late  Ellen  H.  Richards. 

Following  this  work,  a  law  was  enacted  by  the  Legislature  in  1882, 
calling  for  the  systematic  examination  by  the  State  Board  of  Health  of 
foods  and  drugs  offered  for  sale  in  the  State.  Laboratories  for  the  regular 
prosecution  of  such  work  were  established  in  that  year,  and  the  work 
carried  on  there  largely  by  technical  school  men  is  too  well  known  to  need 
recapitulation  here.  Other  States,  and  finally  the  national  government 
also  established  such  departments,  and  the  work  of  chemists  and  biologists 
in  these  numerous  food  and  drug  laboratories  has  made  the  pure  food  slogan 
familiar  and  of  practical  interest  throughout  the  country. 

In  1885  the  Massachusetts  Drainage  Commission,  so-called,  made  a 
report  that  has  been  of  much  moment  and  influence  upon  sanitary  science 
and  public  health  in  Massachusetts,  and  by  force  of  example  throughout  the 
rest  of  the  country.  This  commission,  after  due  investigation  and  careful 
consideration  of  the  report  of  its  engineer,  made  certain  recommendations, 
the  principal  one  of  which  was  for  the  establishment  of  a  board  to  have  a 
"  watchful  care  over  the  interior  waters  of  the  State."  "  Let  these  guardians 
of  inland  waters,"  so  they  stated,  "  be  charged  to  acquaint  themselves  with 


396          TECHNICAL    SCHOOL    MAN    IN    PUBLIC    HEALTH    WORK 

the  actual  condition  of  all  waters  within  the  state  as  respects  their  pollution 
or  purity  and  to  inform  themselves  particularly  as  to  the  relation  which  that 
condition  bears  to  the  health  and  well-being  of  any  part  of  the  people  of  the 
Commonwealth.  .  .  .  Let  them  use  every  means  in  their  power  to  prevent 
pollution.  .  .  .  Let  them  make  it  their  business  to  advise  and  assist  cities 
and  towns  desiring  a  supply  of  water  or  a  system  of  sewerage.  .  .  .  They 
shall  put  themselves  at  the  disposal  of  manufacturers  and  others  using 
rivers,  etc.,  or  misusing  them,  to  suggest  the  best  means  of  minimizing  the 
amount  of  dirt  in  their  effluents  and  to  experiment  upon  methods  of 
reducing  or  avoiding  pollution.  ...  It  shall  be  their  especial  function  to 
guard  the  public  interest  and  the  public  health  in  its  relation  with  water." 
Surely  this  was  a  large  field  of  work  for  any  board  however  well 
equipped  and  organized,  yet  these  recommendations  were  enacted  into  laws 
and  the  powers  and  duties  suggested  by  the  commission  were  given  to  the 
State  Board  of  Health.  This  was  the  beginning  of  that  long  and  notable 
series  of  investigations  and  experiments  carried  out  largely  by  technical 
school  men  that  have  placed  Massachusetts  in  a  foremost  position  in  the 
world  in  the  department  of  sanitary  science  dealing  with  all  questions  of 
water  supply  and  sewage  disposal  or  purification.  In  order  to  intelligently 
carry  out  the  duties  assigned  them,  laboratories  and  an  experiment  station 
were  established  in  connection  with  a  sanitary  engineering  department. 
At  the  experiment  station  of  the  board,  which  has  now  been  in  operation 
nearly  twenty-three  years,  investigations  have  been  carried  on  that  have 
not  only  laid  the  foundations  for  the  scientific  treatment  of  sewage  and 
given  the  initiative  for  similar  investigations  in  this  and  other  countries, 
but  experiments  have  been  carried  on  through  many  years  in  order  to 
develop  an  accurate  science  of  sewage  purification  with  an  accumulation  of 
data  concerning  practical  arid  theoretical  methods  that  will  suffice  to  answer 
most  questions  arising  in  the  engineering  problems  of  this  subject.  Further 
than  this,  engineering,  chemical  and  biological  studies  concerning  the  effi- 
ciency of  the  many  varied  methods  of  water  purification,  have  been  made, 
and  many  papers  dealing  with  original  investigations  of  the  subjects  studied 
have  been  published.  The  technical  men  working  at  the  station  have  devel- 
oped during  the  past  twenty  years  new  and  more  accurate  chemical,  biolog- 
ical and  physical  methods  for  the  study  of  waters,  sewages,  sands,  soils,  etc., 
and  besides  experimental  investigations  tending  to  the  development  of 
scientific  methods  of  sewage  purification  and  water  filtration,  have  made 
many  special  investigations  in  other  related  branches  of  sanitary  science. 
They  have  made  studies  of  shellfish  and  shellfish  pollution;  the  action  of 
waters  upon  metals  with  especial  reference  to  lead  poisoning,  the  bacterial 


H.    W.    CLARK,    '87  397 

purification  of  water  by  freezing,  the  classification  and  identification  of 
bacteria,  and  other  subjects  too  numerous  to  mention  here.  The  chemists  in 
cooperation  with  the  engineers  have  made  probably  the  most  complete 
investigations  of  factory  wastes  and  methods  for  their  disposal  as-  yet  made 
in  this  or  any  country.  These  board  of  health  laboratories  in  conjunction 
with  the  engineering  department  have  really  been  a  graduate  school  for  the 
higher  education  of  technical  men  engaged  in  public  health  work,  and  from 
this  school  many  men  well  trained  in  this  particular  branch  of  sanitary 
work  have  gone  to  other  states,  and  willingly  acknowledge  that  a  liberal 
part  of  their  education  and  basis  for  usefulness  and  success  in  other  fields 
was  obtained  in  the  laboratories  and  engineering  department  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts Board  of  Health.  To  two  technical  school  men  a  large  part  of  the 
planning  of  this  epoch-making  work  was  due:  one  of  them,  Hiiram  F. 
Mills,  a  graduate  of  the  Eensselaer  Polytechnic  Institute  and  a  member  of 
the  Corporation  of  the  Institute  of  Technology,  and  the  other,  Thomas  M. 
Drown,  a  physician  by  education  but  a  chemist,  investigator  and  teacher  of 
chemistry  throughout  his  life.  With  these  two  should  also  be  mentioned 
Allen  Hazen  and  William  T.  Sedgwick. 

Year  by  year  other  states  have  adopted  and  installed  such  public  health 
departments  as  require  the  work  and  investigations  of  chemists,  bacteriolo- 
gists and  engineers,  until  at  the  present  time  nearly  all  of  the  northern  and 
one  or  two  of  the  southern  states  are  carrying  on  this  line  of  public  health 
work. 

I  have  spoken  principally  of  Massachusetts  work  and  am  justified,  I 
believe,  in  so  doing,  as  Massachusetts  was  certainly  the  pioneer  State  in  the 
new  science  of  prevention  of  disease  and  the  abatement  of  nuisances  and 
proper  guardianship  of  the  public  health  by  methods  of  municipal  sani- 
tation. The  story  of  the  technical  school  man  in  public  health  work  here 
has  now  been  repeated  many  times  in  other  States.  Courses  in  sanitary 
engineering  and  sanitary  chemistry  in  technical  schools  and  universities 
were  not  known  twenty-five  years  ago  with  the  exception  of  some  instruc- 
tion in  sanitary  chemistry  at  the  Institute  of  Technology.  To-day,  how- 
ever, all  this  is  changed  and  the  comparatively  new  science  of  bacteriology 
lends  its  important  assistance  to  sanitary  work. 

What,  may  be  asked,  have  the  labors  of  these  technical  school  men 
accomplished?  What  influence  have  they  had  upon  public  health?  In 
the  first  place,  they  have  by  their  investigations  of  foods  and  drugs  awakened 
in  our  people  an  intelligent  interest  and  a  realizing  sense  of  honesty  and 
dishonesty  in  trade  in  household  essentials.  They  have  taught  needed 
lessons  in  regard  to  the  meaning  of  adulteration  and  the  effect  of  pre- 


398         TECHNICAL    SCHOOL    MAN    IN    PUBLIC    HEALTH    WORK 

servatives  upon  food  and  health.  They  have  lessened  adulteration.  They 
have  raised  the  standard  of  cleanliness  in  production,  and  while  certain 
individuals  and  organizations  of  whom  better  things  might  be  expected, 
oppose  these  advances,  yet  constant  headway  is  being  made. 

This,  briefly,  is  the  work  accomplished  as  the  result  of  food  and  drug 
investigations.  The  far-reaching  improvements  in  sanitary  science  and 
sanitary .  conditions  accomplished  by  the  bacteriologists,  sanitary  engi- 
neers and  chemists  working  along  the  lines  laid  down  by  the  Massachusetts 
Drainage  Commission  of  twenty-five  years  ago,  are  not  so  easily  or  briefly 
summarized.  Throughout  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  country,  a  new 
and  better  understanding  of  the  relation  between  water  supply  and  health 
has  been  established,  and  by  reason  of  this  and  the  improvement  of  munici- 
pal water  supplies,  the  lives  of  thousands  of  people  are  saved  each  year  and 
numberless  cases  of  disease  prevented.  The  records  of  health  and  disease 
in  certain  cities  before  and  after  the  construction  of  municipal  filters  are 
striking  object  lessons  of  the  value  of  proper  municipal  hygiene  brought 
to  the  present  standard  by  technical  men. 


PRESENT  STATUS  OF  WATER  PURIFICATION  IN  THE  UNITED 

STATES  AND  THE  PART  THAT  THE  MASSACHUSETTS 

INSTITUTE  OF  TECHNOLOGY  HAS  PLAYED. 

By  GEORGE  C.  WHIPPLE,  '89, 

Professor  of  Sanitary  Engineering  at  Harvard  University,  and  Consulting 
Engineer,  New  York  Oil  y. 

THE  years  when  the  United  States  census  is  taken  are  appropriate 
times  to  examine  municipal  statistics  with  reference  to  the  progress  that  is 
being  made  in  the  arts  of  sanitation  during  successive  decades.  It  is  pecu- 
liarly fortunate  that,  just  as  the  results  of  the  1910  census  are  becoming 
available,  the  celebration  of  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  the  Massachusetts 
Institute  of  Technology  should  afford  an  opportune  occasion  for  reviewing 
the  progress  that  has  been  made,  not  only  during  the  last  ten  years  but  dur- 
ing the  last  fifty  years. 

Fifty  years  ago  our  American  cities  were  fewer  and  much  smaller 
than  they  are  now.  New  York,  the  largest  city,  then  had  a  population  of 
only  813,669;  now,  with  all  its  boroughs,  the  population  of  the  city  is 
4,766,883.  Boston  in  1860  had  177,840  persons,  now  it  has  670,585; 
Chicago  had  109,260,  now  it  has  2,185,283i  Fifty  years  ago  only  eight 
cities  had  populations  of  more  than  100,000.  Now  fifty  cities  are  larger 
than  this.  Then  only  thirty-two  cities  were  larger  than  25,000,  now  there 
are  228  cities.  The  total  population  of  the  United  States  in  1860  was  31,- 
443,321;  now  it  is  91,972,266.  Growth  and  concentration  of  population 
have  marked  this  entire  period,  the  cities  growing  not  only  by  immigra- 
tion from  abroad  but  by  transmigration  from  the  rural  districts. 

With  the  growth  of  the  cities  the  water  supply  problems  have  increased 
in  magnitude  and  complexity.  In  1860  the  water  consumption  in  Boston 
was  about  seventeen  million  gallons  daily.  The  Cochituate  works  were 
then  twelve  years  old.  The  introduction  of  this  supply  was  regarded  as  a 
great  municipal  event.  To-day  the  water  consumption  is  upwards  of  120 
million.  During  the  interval  the  Mystic  works  have  been  constructed  and 
abandoned.  New  sources  of  supply,  involving  the  construction  of  great 
reservoirs  and  conduits,  have  been  found  in  the  Sudbury  and  Nashua 
Rivers,  while  the  distribution  system  has  been  expanded  into  a  metropolitan 

399 


400       STATUS    OP    WATER    PURIFICATION    IN    UNITED    STATES 

district.  New  York  City  now  uses  more  than  400  million  gallons  of  water 
a  day,  and  the  new  works  that  are  being  constructed  will  provide  an  addi- 
tional capacity  of  250  million,  and  still  further  extensions  are  planned. 

It  would  be  difficult  to  estimate  the  total  amount  of  water  now  being 
supplied  to  the  cities  and  towns  of  the  United  States,  but  it  certainly  ex- 
ceeds five  billion  gallons  a  day.  The  water  consumption  is  increasing  even 
more  rapidly  than  the  population.  The  higher  standards  of  living,,  especial- 
ly among  the  lower  and  middle  classes,  the  multiplication  of  fixtures  that 
incite  a  lavish  use  of  water,  the  increased  uses  of  water  for  manufacturing 
purposes,  etc.,  are  constantly  tending  to  increase  the  per  capita  consump- 
tion in  the  large  cities.  Even  the  use  of  meters  does  not  seem  to  permanent- 
ly check  this  increase.  The  problem,  therefore,  is  a  growing  one. 

The  quality  of  our  public  water  supplies  in  1860  was  low,  judged  by 
modern  requirements.  Clearness  and  freedom  from  color,  taste  and  odor 
were  the  ruling  standards,  and  even  these  were  very  often  not  complied 
with.  Water  analysis  was  confined  chiefly  to  the  mineral  constituents. 
The  germ  theory  of  the  transmission  of  disease  through  the  agency  of 
sewage  polluted  water  had  not  arisen. 

Water  purification  in  this  country  was  an  unknown  art  and  even  in 
Europe,  where  it  had  recently  come  into  vogue,  it  was  regarded  as  a  means 
of  clarification  only.  A  few  early  attempts  to  obtain  clean  water  supplies 
from  muddy  sources  by  means  of  filtration  were  made  about  this  time. 
Filters  were  built  at  Poughkeepsie,  K  Y.vin  1872,  and  at  Hudson  in  1874, 
for  clarifying  the  water  of  the  Hudson  Eiver.  In  1869  Kirkwood  made 
his  report,  now  a  classic,  on  the  purification  of  the  Mississippi  Kiver 
water  supply  at  St.  Louis,  but  his  project  was  not  carried  out.  After  this, 
public  interest  lagged  until  the  epoch-making  bacteriological  discoveries 
of  Pasteur,  Koch  and  others  demonstrated  beyond  question  that  the  pollu- 
tion of  water  was  not  alone  a  matter  of  sentiment,  it  was  a  question  of 
sickness  and  death,  a  matter  of  vital  importance  to  millions  of  people.  It 
was  not  until  well  into  the  eighties  that  the  idea  began  to  bear  practical 
results  in  this  country. 

From  this  early  work  let  us  turn  to  present  conditions  and  examine 
the  statistics  as  to  the  extent  to  which  the  purification  of  water  is  now  being 
practiced.  At  the  time  of  the  International  Engineering  Congress  held  at 
St.  Louis  in  1905,  a  resume  of  the  progress  of  the  art  was  made  by  Hazen, 
based  upon  data  obtained  from  the  most  reliable  sources.  For  the  purposes 
of  this  paper  the  tables  there  presented  have  been  brought  up  to  date  and 
the  comparison  made  by  decades.  (As  the  complete  census  is  not  available 
at  this  writing  the  figures  given  for  1910  are  subject  to  slight  correction.) 


GEOEGE    C.    WHIPPLE,   '89 


401 


TABLE  No.  1. 
POPULATIONS  SUPPLIED  WITH  FILTERED  WATER  AT  DIFFERENT  DATES. 


TotalUrban 

Population  Supplied  with  Filtered  Water. 

Population  in 

Percent  of 

Year. 

U.S. 
Places  of  more 
than  2500 

Sand  Filters. 

Mechanical 

Total. 

Urban 
Population 
Supplied. 

Inhabitants. 

Filters. 

1870 

. 

None 

None 

None 

0 

1880 

13,300,000 

30,000 



30,000 

0.23 

1890 

21,400,000 

35,000 

275,000 

310,000 

1.45 

1900 

29,500,000 

360,000 

1,500,000 

1,860,000 

6.30 

1910 

38,350,000 

3,883,221 

6,922,361 

10,805,582 

28.20 

In  1870  practically  no  filtered  water  Avas  in  use  in  this  country.  In 
1880,  30,000  people' were  using  filtered  water;  in  1890,  310,000;  in  1900, 
1,860,000;  and  in  1910,  10,805,000.  At  the  present  time  twenty-eight  per 
cent  of  all  the  people  living  in  places  that  contain  2,500  or  more  inhabitants 
are  using  water  that  has  been  artificially  purified. 

If  the  cities  of  more  than  25,000  inhabitants  are  considered  alone  it 
will  be  found  that  our  228  cities  have  a  total  population  of  28,508,000. 
Of  these,  about  8,098,000  are  supplied  with  water  that  does  not  need  filtra- 
tion or  at  least  will  not  for  a  long  time.  This  leaves  about  20,311,000 
people  that  are  using  water  from  sources  subject  to  contamination. 
8,402,000  of  these,  or  42  per  cent,  are  adequately  protected  by  the  nitration 
of  the  water.  Filters  are  under  construction,  or  have  been  authorized,  for 
648,000  more,  thus  raising  the  percentage  to  45  per  cent.  Filters  have 
been  officially  recommended  for  3,541,000.  7,720,000  people  are  still  using 
water  of  questionable  quality,  although  in  some  of  these  cases  filtration  has 
been  seriously  considered  by  sanitarians.  Besides  the  supplies  protected 
by  filtration,  many  supplies  are  being  disinfected,  constantly  or  intermit- 
tently,— a  partial  remedy,  but  one  often  extremely  effective. 


TABLE   No.  2. 
"  FILTERS  IN  SERVICE,  UNDER  CONSTRUCTION,  AND  AUTHORIZED. 


Cities  with  Populations  of 

Sand. 

Mechanical. 

Total. 

Percent  of 
total  of 
this  Class 

Over  1  000  000                   

1,601,088 

104,000 

1,705,088 

20 

200,000  to  1,000,000  
100,000  to     200,000  
50,000  to     100,000  

2,010,816 
125,253 
398,103 

1,654,495 
893,036 
885,600 

3,665,311 
1,018,289 
1,283,703 

41 
36 
31 

25,000  to       50,000  

176,911 

1,300,411 

1,477,322 

37 

4,312,171 

4,837,542 

9,149,713 

32 

402       STATUS    OF    WATEE    PUBLICATION    IN    UNITED    STATES 

Speaking  in  general  terms,  it  may  be  said  that  half  of  the  problem 
has  been  solved  in  a  single  generation.  Ten  million  people  of  this  country 
are  now  drinking  pure  water  as  a  result  of  the  practical  application  of 
scientific  principles.  The  next  generation  should  see  this  problem  solved 
for  all  cities. 

It  is  interesting  to  compare  the  figures  for  sand  and  mechanical  filtra- 
tion for  the  different  decades.  Although  the  early  filters  were  of  the  slow 
sand  type,  mechanical  filtration  was  really  the  first  to  be  developed,  for  the 
reason  that  the  need  of  clarification  was  greatest  in  the  South  and  Middle 
West  where  the  waters  were  muddy  and  where  sand  filtration  could  not  be 
applied.  In  1890,  275,000  people  were  supplied  with  water  filtered  through 
mechanical  filters  and  only  35,000  had  sand-filtered  water.  These  early 
filters  were  crude  in  design  and  intended  rather  for  clarification  than  for 
bacterial  efficiency.  In  1900  the  figures  were  1,500,000  for  mechanical 
filters  and  360,000  for  sand  filters.  In  1910  they  were  6,922,000  for 
mechanical  filters  and  3,883*,000  for  sand  filters.  The  population  supplied 
with  sand  filtered  water  has  increased  tenfold  in  each  decade.  Mechanical 
filters,  measured  by  population  supplied,  have  increased  less  rapidly. 

If  the  two  types  of  filtration  are  compared  it  is  seen  that  sand  filters 
are  most  used  in  the  large  cities  and  mechanical  filters  in  the  small  cities. 
In  the  cities  of  more  than  200,000  inhabitants  the  ratio  of  population  sup- 
plied from  sand  filters  to  the  population  supplied  from  mechanical  filters 
is  as  2  to  1;  in  the  cities  with  populations  between  100,000  and  50,000, 
the  ratio  is  as  1  to  3% ;  in  the  cities  and  towns  with  populations  less  than 
25,000,  as  1  to  16. 

The  sharp  dividing  line  between  sand  filters  and  mechanical  filters  that 
was  conspicuous  ten  or  fifteen  years  ago  is  gradually  becoming  less  marked. 
Filters  are  being  designed  to  fit  particular  conditions  and  the  best  features 
of  both  systems  are  being  used  and  often  combined-  Now  that  the  prin- 
ciples of  sedimentation,  filtration,  coagulation,  and  disinfection  of  water 
have  become  established  it  is  possible  to  purify  almost  any  water  and  render 
it  fit  for  domestic  use.  The  problems  of  the  engineer  are  now  those  of 
efficiency  and  economy  and  the  selection  of  the  best  devices  to  fit  particular 
needs.  Our  country  is  a  large  one  and  the  most  diverse  conditions  exist. 
Consequently,  our  water  purification  plants  are  likely  to  become  more  and 
more  varied  instead  of  becoming  relatively  uniform  in  character,  las  in 
Europe. 

What  has  water  filtration  accomplished?  A  general  answer  would  be 
that  it  has  provided  more  than  ten  million  people  with  a  clean  and  safe 
water  supply  and  has  thereby  increased  their  comfort  and  health.  It  has 
saved  thousands  of  lives  by  preventing  the  spread  of  infectious  diseases. 


GEORGE    C.    WHIFFLE,    '89 


403 


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404       STATUS    OF    WATER    PURIFICATION    IN    UNITED    STATES 

It  is  difficult  to  express  these  results  in  figures.  A  common,  and  per- 
haps the  best,  index  of  the  effect  of  filtration  on  the  public  health  is  found 
in  the  death-rate  from  typhoid  fever,  a  well  established  water-borne  disease. 
but  even  this  falls  far  short  of  telling  the  whole  story. 

Fifty  years  ago,  the  vital  statistics  of  our  cities  were  not  as  accurate  as 
they  are  to-day  and  were  far  less  complete.  At  that  time  the  annual  death- 
rates  from  typhoid  fever  were  well  above  50  per  100,000  in  nearly  all  of 
our  large  cities.  In  Boston  the  typhoid  fever  death-rate  was  over  60;  in 
New  York  and  Chicago  it  was  over  40 ;  in  many  cities  it  was  much  higher, 
and  not  infrequently  over  100.  In  1880  the  average  typhoid  fever  death- 
rate  in  twelve  of  the  United  States,  including  all  the  New  England  States 
and  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Maryland,  California,  Maine  and  Michigan, 
was  55  per  100,000.  In  1890  it  had  decreased  to  36 ;  in  1900,  to  23 ;  and 
at  the  present  time  it  is  probably  not  far  from  20  per  100,000.  Various 
causes  have  contributed  to  this  decrease,  but  one  of  the  most  important 
ones  has  been  that  of  the  purification  of  the  public  water  supplies. 

It  would  be  easy  to  pick  out  particular  cities  and  show  the  definite 
reduction  of  typhoid  fever  after  the  introduction  of  filtered  water.  It  is 
well  known  that  the  Lawrence  filter  caused  the  typhoid  fever  death-rate  to 
decrease  from  more  than  100  to  about  20  per  100,000,  and  that  at  Albany 
the  rate  decreased  by  an  equal  amount.  The  fact  is  less  well 'known  that  in 
Philadelphia  the  typhoid  fever  death-rate  which  frequently  exceeded  70 
before  the  introduction  of  filtered  water,  was  down  to  about  17  per  100,000 
in  1910;  that  at  Pittsburgh  the  rate  has  dropped  from  considerably  more 
than  100  to  less  than  30  per  100,000;  and  that  at  Cincinnati  the  typhoid 
fever  death-rate  in  1910  reached  the  phenomenally  low  figure  of  5.7  per 
100,000,  where  before  the  construction  of  the  filter  it  often  exceeded  50. 
Dozens  of  such  instances  might  be  cited. 

Looking  at  the  figures  in  a  broad  way,  it  may  be  seen  that  in  most  of 
the  cities  where  modern  water  filters  have  been  introduced  the  typhoid 
fever  death-rates  now  run  well  below  20  per  100,000.  Between  the  time 
when  the  Institute  received  its  charter  and  the  present  year  the  average 
death-rate  in  such  cities  has  fallen  by  at  least  30  per  100,000.  If  the 
typhoid  fever  death-rates  that  prevailed  in  1860  existed  to-day,  the  number 
of  deaths  from  typhoid  fever  in  our  cities  would  be  at  least  10,000  per  year 
more  than  it  actually  is.  Furthermore,  typhoid  fever  is  not  the  only  water- 
borne  disease.  'Statistics  show  that  in  many  places  where  the  typhoid  fever 
death-rate  has  been  reduced  by  the  introduction  of  filtered  water  the  general 
•  If; i ill-rate  has  been  decreased  to  an  even  greater  extent. 

It  is  thus  seen  that  the  filtration  of  water  and  the  methods  adopted 


GEORGE    C.    WHIPPLE,   '89  405 

to  prevent  its  pollution  are  among  the  most  important  elements  in  the  con- 
servation of  life. 

Looking  at  the  matter  from  the  financial  standpoint,  and  assuming 
that  every  death  from  typhoid  fever  represents  a-  loss  to  the  community  of 
$10,000,  the  improvements  that  have  been  made  in  the  quality  of  our  public 
water  supplies  during  the  last  fifty  years  represent  a  saving  of  vital  capital 
amounting  to  over  $100,000,000  per  year,  based  on  present  population. 

Figures  of  this  magnitude,  based  on  inadequate  data  as  they  necessarily 
must  be,  mean  little  statistically,  but  to  one  with  a  scientific  imagination 
they  are  an  eloquent  commentary  on  the  value  of  technical  science  applied 
to  sanitation; 

But  there  is  much  work  left  to  be  done.  The  problems  of  filter  design 
and  construction  are  being  fast  solved,  but  the  problems  of  efficient  opera- 
tion are  just  beginning.  Standards  of  filter  efficiency  are  sure  to  increase 
in  the  future  and  better  means  of  reaching  them  will  be  necessary.  But 
even  the  constant  maintenance  of  a  high  bacterial  efficiency  is  not  all  there 
is  to  the  problem.  A  filter  plant  must  be  operated  not  only  efficiently  but 
economically.  Important  advances  are  being  made  in  this  direction  and 
between  the  high  cost  of  filtration  at  the  old  Lawrence  filter  and  the  low 
cost  at  Washington  there  is  a  very  wide  difference. 

Supplemental  to  the  filtration  of  water  must  be  mentioned  the  purifica- 
tion of  sewage  or,  to  be  more  exact,  the  treatment  of  sewage  to  render  it 
less  offensive, — for  unfortunately,  the  purification  of  sewage  in  the  strict 
sense  of  the  term  is  to-day  impracticable.  As  our  populations  become  dense 
the  excessive  pollution  of  our  streams  must  be  prevented,  not  only  to 
eliminate  nuisances  along  the  shores  but  to  lessen  the  burden  on  filters 
used  for  purifying  water.  This  additional  factor  of  safety  will  become 
more  and  more  necessary  as  time  goes  on- 


THE  POLLUTION  OF  STREAMS  BY  MANUFACTURING  WASTES 

By  .WILLIAM  S.  JOHNSON,  '89, 

Consulting  Sanitary  Engineer,  Boston,  Mass. ;  Formerly  Chief  Assistant  Engineer, 
State  Board  of  Health  of  Massachusetts. 

RECENT  decisions  of  the  courts  in  relation  to  the  pollution  of.  streams, 
and  laws  enacted  by  the  -legislatures  of  'many  States,  indicating,  as  they  do, 
a  decided  change  in  the  point  of  view,  make  the  subject  of  stream  pollution 
of  the  greatest  importance  to  manufacturers  producing  liquid  wastes  arid 
to  those  requiring  clean  water  for  manufacturing  purposes. 

The  discharge  of  manufacturing  wastes  directly  into  streams  not  used 
for  water  supply  purposes  has  generally  been  permitted,  in  this  country 
without  restraint  and,  in  fact,  has  been  permitted  even  in  streams  from 
which  domestic  water  supplies  have  been  taken.  The  importance  of  the 
manufacturing  interests  to  the  welfare  of  the  country  has  been  recognized 
by  both  legislatures  and  courts, -and  the  plea  .that  the  factories  would  be 
driven  out  of  the  community  has  been  sufficient  until  recent  times  to  pre- 
vent any  action  which  would  necessitate  the  purification  of  manufacturing 
wastes. 

Now,  however,  the  old  principle  that,  because  of  the  importance  of  the 
factories  to  the  welfare  of  the  community,  the;  public  should  endure  with 
patience  any  inconveniences  or  even  damage  to  property  caused  by ;  the 
factories  no  longer  obtains,  and  public: comfort  and  convenience  are  coming 
to  be  recognized  more  and  more  both  in  the  legislatures  and  in  the  courts. 
This  is  clearly  indicated  by  recent  legislation  and  court  decisions  all  over 
the  country. 

This  demand  for  clean  streams  is  in  line  with  the  modern  demand* for 
cleaner  food  and  cleaner  drinking  water.  We  are  no  longer  satisfied  to 
know  that  the  water  supplied  to  us  will  not  cause  a  specific  disease  and 
that  foods  we  eat  do  not  contain  substances  injurious  to  the  system.  We 
demand  water  which  is  free  from  filth  of  all  kinds  and  foods  which  are 
clean  and  free  from  foreign  substances,  even  though  they  may  be  harmless. 
So  it  is  in  the  case  of  streams ;  the  public  is  beginning  to  demand  something 
more  than  protection  to  health.  It  requires  that  the  streams  shall  become, 
as  they  will  if  kept  clean,  the  most  attractive  features  of  the  neighborhood. 

406 


WILLIAM    S.    JOHNSON,   '89  407 

It  is  certain  that  this  public  demand,  enforced  as  it  has  already  been 
by  the  legislatures  and  the  courts,  and  the  demand  of  the  manufacturers 
themselves  who  require  clean  water  in  the  manufacturing  processes,  will 
result  in  the  necessity  of  keeping  out  of  many  of  our  streams  th$  most 
objectionable  of  the  manufacturing  wastes,  and  this  has  become  one  qf  the 
serious  problems  to  be  met  by  the  manufacturer. 

The  simplest  solution  of  the  problem,  so  far  as  the  manufacturer  }s 
concerned,  is  to  make  where  possible  a  connection  with  the  public  sewers, 
transferring  the  problem  of  the  disposal  of  the  wastes  to  the  public  authori- 
ties, but  this  method  of  disposal  is,  in  many  cases,  impossible  and  its 
feasibility  in  other  cases  questionable. 

The  quantity  of  liquid  wastes  produced  at  a  single  factory  is  fre- 
quently greater  than  the  total  quantity  of  domestic  sewage  flowing  in  the 
sewers  of  the  town  in  which  the  factory  is  located  and  the  character  of  the 
wastes  may  be  such  that  they  cannot  be  purified  in  connection 
with  the  sewage,  except  at  a  very  great  increase  in  the  cost.  TJje  cost  of 
the  sewers  and  of  sewage  disposal  is  largely  assessed  upon  those  benefiting 
by  the  sewers  and  in  proportion  to  the  benefits  received.  If  a  proper  por- 
tion of  the  cost  should  be  assessed  on  the  manufacturers,  tfte  assessment 
would  be  in  many  cases  enormous  and  enough  to  make  such  disposal  prac- 
tically prohibitive.  It  is  difficult,  moreover,  to  determine  in  advance  what 
the  added  cost  of  removing  and  purifying  the  manufacturing  wastes  in 
connection  with  the  town  sewage  is  likely  to  be,  for  it  is  uncertain  how 
much  added  care  the  sewers  will  require  and  how  much  added  expense 
there  will  be  in  purifying  the  sewage. 

Some  wastes  can  undoubtedly  be  discharged  into  the  sewers  without 
causing  trouble,  depending  on  the  character  of  the  wastes  and  their  volume 
as  compared  with  the  volume  of  domestic  sewage  flowing  in  the  sewers. 
Other  wastes  can  be  discharged  into  the  sewers  after  some  simple  prelim- 
inary treatment  without  causing  trouble,  but  in  perhaps  the  majority  of 
cases,  where  wastes  cause  trouble  in  the  stream,  they  are  likely  to  cause 
trouble  in  the  sewerage  system,  especially  if  the  sewage  is  purified. 

Another  reason  why  in  some  cases  it  is  not  feasible  to  discharge  the 
manufacturing  wastes  into  the  sewers  is  that  the  diversion  of  so  large  a 
quantity  of  water  from  the  stream  would  bring  suits  for  damage  from  those 
on  the  stream  below,  and  in  many  cases  where  the  entire  dry  weather  flow 
of  the  stream  is  used  in  the  manufacturing  processes  at  each  of  the  factories 
on  the  stream,  the  discharge  of  the  wastes  into  the  sewers  would  be  im- 
possible. For  such  cases  the  only  possible  way  of  disposing  of  the  liquid 
wastes  is  by  discharging  them  into  the  streams. 


408       POLLUTION    OF    STREAMS    BY   MANUFACTURING    WASTES 


Manufacturing  wastes  in  general  differ  'greatly  from  sewage  in  their 
effect  on  the  water  of  a  stream,  and  the  study  of  pollution  of  streams  by 
domestic  sewage  is  of  little  assistance  in  determining  what  the  effect  of  a 
given  waste  will  be.  The  nature  of  domestic  sewage  is  such  that,  if  it  is  dis- 
charged into  a  stream  containing  at  all  times  a  sufficient  quantity  of  oxygen, 
so  that  putrefaction  will  not  take  place  and  so  that  it  is  quickly  mixed  with 
the  water,  it  undergoes  chemical  changes  and  quickly  becomes  innocuous. 
Many  of  the  wastes  from  manufacturing  processes,  on  the  other  hand,  are 
quite  stable  and  may  be  carried  for  long  distances  before  becoming  changed 
to  such  an  extent  as  to  be  unobjectionable. 

Manufacturing  wastes  vary  very  greatly  in  their  composition, .  and  gen- 
erally have  quite  different  characteristics  from  domestic  sewage.  In  some 
cases  the  wastes  are  much  more  readily  disposed  of  by  dilution  than  is 
domestic  sewage,  while  in  other  cases  the  effect  of  dilution  is  very  much 
less.  The  following  table  gives  analyses  of  characteristic  samples  of  sewage 
and  of  manufacturing  wastes : 

(Parts  in  100,000.) 


Residue    on 
Evaporation. 

Ammonia.     Albuminoid. 

Oxygen 
Consumed. 

Total. 

Loss  on 
Igni- 
tion. 

Free. 

Total. 

Dissolved. 

Sus- 
pended. 

Washer  in  paper  mill  . 
Paper  machine  
Wool  scouring  bowls  .  . 
Cloth  washer  

322 
57 
1696 
2621 

129 
29 
1103 
1899 

0.0500 
0.0496 
6.1000 
1.82 
1.82 
1.70 
2.77 

0.4200 
0.0680 
12.0700 
14.80 
5.70 
1.24 
0.48 

0.3900 
0.0264 
5.8800 
8.40 
2.52 
0.61 
0.29 

.0300 
.0146 
6.1900 
6.40 
3.18 
0.63 
.19 

35.00 
7.32 
136.20 
760 
73.37 
77.50 
3.63 

Tannery  

Dye  house  . 

268 
38 

114 
{17 

Sewage.  . 

. 

No  fixed  rule  can  be  applied  to  the  amount  of  manufacturing  wastes 
of  any  given  kind  which  can  be  discharged  into  a  stream  of  a  given  volume, 
for  the  seriousness  of  the  pollution  depends  on  the  use  to  which  the  water  is 
put  even  more  in  the  case  of  manufacturing  wastes  than  in  the  case  of 
domestic  sewage.  In  fact,  the  increasing  fastidiousness  of  the  public  and 
of  the  users  of  the  water  makes  any  fixed  standard  out  of  the  question,  and 
each  case  must  be  settled  independently.  Generally,  too,  the  problem  is 
complicated  by  wastes  from  other  factories,  and  the  responsibility  of  each 
manufacturer  is  difficult  to  determine. 

It  must  be  accepted  as  a  fact  that  the  time  is  coming  when  no  manu- 
facturing wastes  containing  any  considerable  amounts  of  polluting  matters 


WILLIAM    S.    JOHNSON,   '89  409 

will  be  permitted  to  be  discharged  into  the  streams  of  the  eastern  section 
of  this  country,  at  least,  without  purification,  and  the  purification  must  he 
siidi  as  to  make  the  water  of  the  stream  unobjectionable  to  those  living  near 
it  or  resorting  to  it.  Furthermore,  the  water  must  be  fit  to  use  for  manu- 
facturing purposes  or  for  any  other  reasonable  purposes  by  the  riparian 
owners  on  the  stream  below.  While  this  may  at  first  be  a  hardship  to  the 
manufacturer,  it  will  soon  work  out  so  that  the  hardship  will  in  most  cases 
not  be  noticed,  and  of  course,  if  such  a  rule  is  universally  applied,  the  cost 
will  eventually  be  borne  by  the  public  which  is  responsible  for  the  change. 

If  the  wastes  are  to  be  purified,  it  is  obviously  desirable  to  reduce  as  far 
as  possible  the  volume  of  the  wastes,  or  the  quantity  of  objectionable 
material  to  be  removed,  by  separation  of  those  wastes  which  require  purifi- 
cation from  those  which  can  safely  be  discharged  into  the  stream.  Many 
times  this  can  be  done  without  difficulty,  and  there  are  cases  where  it 
would  be  economy  to  make  expensive  changes  in  the  plant  to  accomplish 
the  separation  of  the  most  polluted  water.  For  example,  the  quantity  of 
water  used  for  rinsing  in  cloth  washers  is  many  times  as  great  as  the 
quantity  of  soapy  water  used  for  washing,  but  it  is  practically  clean  water 
and  can  be  discharged  into  almost  any  stream  without  objection.  There  are 
cases,  too,  where  valuable  stock  may  be  recovered  from  the  wastes  before 
Lhey  are  purified  at  a  small  net  cost  or  even  at  a  profit,  preventing  to  this 
extent  the  pollution  of  the  stream  or  reducing  the  difficulty  of  treating  the 
wastes  if  their  purification  is  necessary.  An  example  of  this  is  found  in 
the  save-alls  used  in  paper  mills. 

The  subject  of  the  purification  of  manufacturing  wastes  has  received 
comparatively  little  attention  in  this  country,  and  the  work  which  has  been 
done  in  other  countries  has  comparatively  little  practical  value  here  on 
account  of  the  great  difference  in  the  conditions.  The  United  States  Gov- 
ernment has  carried  on  investigations  and  experiments  on  different  classes 
of  wastes,  and  the  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Health  has  made  very 
valuable  experiments  with  the  wastes  from  certain  mills,  but  the  conditions 
are  so  different  at  different  factories  and  the  character  of  the  wastes  varies 
so  greatly  in  different  mills,  even  in  those  producing  the  same  kind  of 
goods,  that,  while  the  investigations  already  made  are  of  value,  it  is  impos- 
sible to  solve  any  particular  problem  by  direct  application  of  the  results 
obtained  in  the  comparatively  few  cases  which  have  been  studied. 

There  is  for  every  liquid  waste  some  means  of  purification  by  which 
it  can  be  improved  to  such  an  extent  as  to  make  it  permissible  to  discharge 
H  into  a  stream.  In  some  cases  this  method  of  purification  is  simple  and 
inexpensive ;  in  other  cases  it  is  complex  and  costly,  but  "with  our  advancing 


410       POLLUTION    OF    STREAMS    BY    MANUFACTURING    WASTES 

knowledge  of  the  subject  of  purification  the  processes  are  becoming  much 
less  expensive. 

In  almost  all  forms  of  purification  the  settling  tank  will  have  an 
important  place.  In  some  cases  sedimentation  in  a  properly  designed  tank 
will  provide  sufficient  purification  so  that  the  effluent  from  the  tank  may 
safely  be  discharged  into  the  stream,  the  solid  matter  being  dried  out  in 
sludge  beds  or  pressed  into  cakes.  In  other  cases  sedimentation  will  be 
only  one  step  in  the  process  of  purification. 

In  some  cases  it  will  be  found  of  advantage  to  use  chemicals  in  con- 
nection with  the  settling  tank,  whether  the  tank  is  used  alone  or  in  con- 
nection with  some  other  process.  In  fact,  there  are  some  wastes  which  can- 
not be  purified  except  by  the  addition  of  chemicals.  Occasionally  it  will  be 
found  that  a  proper  mixture  of  the  different  wastes  from1  a  factory  will 
bring  about  a  chemical  action  which  will  assist  the  process  of  purification 
very  materially. 

Next  in  importance  to  the  settling  tank  as  a  means  of  purification  ?s 
the  strainer,  used  either  alone  or  in  connection  with  the  tank.  The  strainer 
ordinarily  consists  of  a  comparatively  thin  layer  of  some  porous  material 
such  as  sand,  gravel,  coke  or  cinders,  and  its  object  is  to  remove  mechanically 
the  solid  matter  in  suspension  in  the  wastes.  If  such  material  as  coke  or 
cinders  is  used  in  the  strainers,  it  can  be  burned  beneath  the  boilers  when 
the  strainers  become  clogged,  and  there  are  certain  obvious  advantages  in 
this  method. 

Filters  of  various  kinds  may  be  used  to  advantage  with  certain  classes 
of  wastes  where  a  more  perfectly  purified  effluent  is  desired.  In  nearly  all 
cases  it  will  be  found  desirable  to  use  settling  tanks  with  filters,  and  in 
some  cases  both  sedimentation  and  straining  should  be  used  as  preliminary 
processes. 

These  are  the  simplest  forms  of  purification  of  manufacturing  wastes 
now  in  use.  With  certain  wastes  more  complex  and  expensive  systems  must 
be  used,  and  the  wastes  treated  either  by  chemicals,  or  in  the  worst  cases 
they  may  have  to  be  evaporated.  The  expense  of  such  treatment  is  obviously 
very  great  unless  some  value  can  be  recovered. 

Fortunately  those  wastes  which  are  most  expensive  to  treat  are  likely 
to  contain  substances  of  enouglj  value  so  that  their  recovery  will  reduce  the 
cost  of  purification.  Every  manufacturer  has  some  idea  of  the  great  value 
of  the  material  escaping  with  his  wastes,  but  he  is  also  probably  aware  that 
the  cost  of  recovering  this  material,  at  least  by  the  present  methods,  is  likely 
to  be -greater  than  the  value  of  tlie  recovered  product.  Even  if  it  could  be 
recovered 'at  a  small  profit,  the 'trouble  and  annoyance  of  carrying  on  such 


WILLIAM    S.    JOHNSON,   '89  411 

an  industry  outside  of  the  regular  business  of  the  factory  would  more  than 
offset  any  profit. 

Starting  with  the  proposition,  however,,  that  the  wastes  must  he  purified 
whatever  the  expense,  the  importance  of  recovering  the  by-product, 
and  thus  reducing  the  necessary  expense  of  purification,  is  evident,  for  the 
recovery  of  the  wastes  is  then  undertaken  not  as  a  profitable  enterprj.se  fait 
as :  a'  means  of  reducing  the  expense  of  the  necessary  purification  .of  the 
wastes. 

Developments  along  the  line  of  the  recovery  of  the  wastes  will  be  very 
rapid,  for  little  work  has  as  yet  been  done  in  this  direction  in  America. 
Certain  of  the  most  valuable  portions  of  wastes,  like  the  fats  from  the  wool 
scouring  processes,  have  been  recovered  with  more  or  less  success  where  it 
has  been  necessary  to  purify  the  wastes  before  they  are  discharged  into  the 
streams,  and  the  results  have  shown  that,  while  the  cost  of  purifying  the 
wastes  is  not  met  by  the  sale  of  the  product,  still  the  net  cost  of  purification 
is  much  less  than  it  would  be  were  these  products  not  recovered-  The 
experience  of  the  wool  scouring  mills,  however,  indicates  one  great  difficulty 
which  is  to  be  met.  Several  factories  having  put  in  wool  scouring  plants 
recently,  the  market  has  become  overstocked  with  degras  and  the  price  has 
consequently  been  reduced  to  a  very  low  figure.  It  is  probable  that  a 
market  can  be  made  for  this  material,  but  it  cannot  well  be  done  by  the 
individual  manufacturer. 

In  some  parts  of  the  world,  where  factories  are  close  together,  com- 
panies have  been  formed  which  make  a  business  of  treating  the  wastes 
from  the  factories.  In  some  cases  the  company  pays  the  manufacturer  a 
small  amount  for  the  privilege  of  treating  his  wastes,  and  recovers  whatever 
is  worth  recovery  from  them.  In  other  cases,  where  the  wastes  are  of  less 
value,  or  the  expense  of  treating  them  is  greater,  the  company  receives  a 
certain  compensation.  This  company  naturally  conducts  the  business  of 
the  recovery  of  the  wastes  much  more  profitably  than  would  be  possible  in 
the  case  of  a  single  manufacturer,  and  is  better  able  to  find  or  make  a 
market  for  its  product.  Furthermore,  the  manufacturer  is  relieved  of  the 
trouble  of  maintaining  the  plant.  There  seems  to  be  no  reason  why  this 
cannot  be  successfully  done  in  many  parts  of  this  country  and  the  manu- 
facturer's wastes  handled  in  much  the  same  way  as  the  wastes  from  meat 
markets  are  now  handled,  relieving  the  manufacturer  of  the  troublesome 
problem  of  handling  his  wastes  and  at  the  same  time  producing  a  revenue 
from  material  which  has  hitherto  gone  to  waste. 

In  the  foregoing  discussion  the  importance  of  the  recent  trend  of 
public  opinion  and  of  court  and  legislative  action  has  been  considered  from 


412       POLLUTION    OF    STREAMS    BY    MANUFACTURING    WASTES 

the  point  of  view  of  the  manufacturer  producing  liquid  wastes,  but  they  are 
perhaps  of  equal  importance  to  the  manufacturer  requiring  clean  water  in 
the  manufacturing  processes. 

The  fact  has  been  established  that  both  riparian  owners  and  the  public 
are  entitled  to  clean  water  in  the  streams,  and,  white  to  secure  this  certain 
manufacturers  may  in  the  beginning  be  put  to  a  considerable  expense,  the 
advantages  of  clean  streams  to  the  community  and  the  advantages  of  clean 
water  to  the  manufacturers  will,  on  the  whole,  make  the  balance  on  tha 
right  side. 


SEWAGE  DISPOSAL  WITH  EESPECT  TO  OFFENSIVE  ODORS 

By  GEORGE  W.  FULLER,  '90, 
Consulting  Engineer,  New  York  City. 

IT  is  scarcely  possible  to  install  sewage  disposal  plants  to  serve  .large 
towns  and  cities  without  there  being  some  noticeable  odors  .and.  smells 
immediately  at  the  plant.  These  odors,  however,  at  some  plants  are  not, 
and  indeed  if  the  works  are  properly  built  and  operated,  should  not  be 
offensive.  Even  at  the  works  themselves  the  odors  never  should  be  as 
noticeable  as  the  odors  emanating  from  some  fertilized  lawns  or  industrial 
establishments. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  unfortunately  true  that  some  sewage  disposal 
plants  have  been  illy  arranged  as  regards  location  and  design  and  that  some 
of  them  have  been  poorly  operated.  The  result  has  been  that  in  some 
places  objectionable  odors  undoubtedly  have  arisen  and  in  consequence  the 
offensive  smells  from  such  plants  have  been  used  with  much  force  as  argu- 
ments by  land  owners  who  for  sentimental  reasons  protest  vigorously 
against  disposal  works  being  built  within  several  miles  of  properties  in 
which  they  are  interested. 

The  question  of  offensive  odors  is  but  one  feature,  but  it  has  been  a 
bothersome  one,  in  some  instances  where  persons  have  persistently  exag- 
gerated the  shortcomings  of  some  plants  and  converted  the  exceptions  into 
the  rule  as  regards  sewage  disposal  experiences. 

Regardless  of  the  unreasonableness  and  selfishnesss  with  which  the 
opponents  to  sewage  disposal  sites  in  their  neighborhood  may .  present 
their  cases  in  some  instances,  it  seems  to  be  clear  that  those  having  to  dp 
with  sewage  disposal  works  must  increase  their  efforts  towards  building 
plants  free  of  nuisance  as  to  offensive  odor  when  operated  properly,  and 
furthermore  to  see  to  it  that  plants  are  operated  in  such  manner  that  there 
is  no  just  ground  for  complaint  from  residents  in  the  neighborhood  of 
such  works  which  at  best  are  open  to  sentimental  prejudice. 

The  importance  of  disposing  of  sewage  in  a  sanitary  manner  is  so 
great  in  the  interests  of  the  public  health  that  it  is  scarcely  necessary  for 
the  writer  to  dwell  further  upon  this  introduction  before  proceeding  to 
outline  some  of  the  principal  features  of  our  present  understanding  as  to 

413 


414     SEWAGE   DISPOSAL  WITH   EESPECT    TO    OFFENSIVE    ODORS 

the  processes  by  which  sewage  may  be  disposed  of  in  satisfactory  manner, 
and  the  means  by  which  such  processes  may  be  utilized  to  best  advantage. 

COMPOSITION  AND  DECOMPOSITION  OF  SEWAGE 

As  the  nature  and  origin  of  sewage  implies,  it  is  a  product  that  varies 
tremendously  in  its  composition.  In  a  rough  way  it  is  about  99  to  99.5  per 
cent  pure  water,  but  the  fraction  of  one  per  cent  of  impurities  varies  within 
very  wide  limits  at  different  hours  of  the  day  and  as  between  the  sewages 
of  different  communities,  due  to  the  influence  of  the  habits  of  the  people 
and  also  to  the  amount  of  industrial  wastes,  street  wash,  etc.,  that  enter  the 
sewers. 

Some  measures  as  to  the  quantity  of  the  organic  matter  in  sewage  were 
applied  with  considerable  accuracy  years  ago  by  those  interested  in  ascer- 
taining the  fertilizing  properties  of  sewage.  As  that  aspect  of  the  case  did 
not  yield  practical  results  on  a  commercial  basis,  the  sewage  chemists  of 
different  countries  have  been  content  to  follow  the  practice  of  using  a  series 
of  arbitrary  methods  which  give  widely  divergent  results.  The  results  have 
value,  however,  for  comparative  purposes  if  applied  to  samples  which  have 
been  collected  in  a  manner  to  make  them  representative  of  the  sewage 
before  and  after  treatment. 

Recently  knowledge  as  to  the  composition  of  sewage  in  more  practical 
terms  has  received  some  impetus  by  studying  the  putrescibility  of  sewage 
and  sewage  effluents  through  bacterial  agencies  and  in  securing  a  measure  of 
the  amount  of  oxygen  required  for  bacteria  to  oxidize  the  more  unstable 
portions  of  the  organic  matter  in  sewage. 

To  appreciate  the  composition  of  sewage  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
prevention  of  odors,  it  is  necessary  to  bear  in  mind  that  the  organic  matter 
of  sewage  comprises  both  living  and  dead  matter.  The  living  matter  will 
thrive  so  long  as  the  food  conditions  and  other  environment  are  favorable 
thereto.  The  dead  organic  matter,  in  the  language  of  the  chemist,  is  sub- 
ject to  reduction  and  oxidation  according  to  the  conditions  surrounding  it. 
In  fact,  the  organic  matter  of  sewage  is  made  up  of  such  complex  molecules 
that  it  has  a  well-defined  tendency  to  decompose,  that  is  to  say,  to  separate 
into  molecules  of  simpler  form. 

Organic  matter,  as  a  general  proposition,  if  resolved  into  simpler  and 
more  stable  compounds  through  oxidizing  agencies,  will  produce  no  offen- 
sive odors  that  are  noticeable.  On  the  other  hand,  if  sewage  decomposes 
in  the  absence  of  oxygen,  the  well-known  reduction  processes  spoken  of  as 
"  putrefaction  "  will  set  in  with  their  attendant  malodorous  by-products. 

The  measure  of  success,  therefore,  attending  the  operation  of  sewage 


GEORGE    W.    FULLER,   '90  415 

disposal  plants,  relates  essentially  to  guarding  against  the  putrefaction  of 
sewage.  This  means  that  there  should  be  obtained  not  only  a  stable,  non- 
putrescent  effluent,  but  also  that  the  steps  in  the  process  of  sewage  treat- 
ment should  be  free  of  putrefaction  or,  if  putrefaction  is  used  for  special 
purposes,  it  should  be  under  such  circumstances  that  the  surrounding  atmos- 
phere will  be  substantially  free  from  objectionable  decomposition  odors. 


OXIDATION  OF  SEWAGE 

Organic  matter,  theoretically  speaking,  may  be  oxidized,  as  regards 
sewage  disposal  methods,  in  one  of  several  ways,  as  follows : 

1.  By  direct  chemical  means. 

2.  By  indirect  chemical  means,  such  as  through  the  aid  of  absorption. 

3.  By  direct  biological  means. 

4.  By  indirect  biological  means,  such  as  through  the  aid  of  enzymes. 
There  are,  of  course,  other  means  of  freeing  sewages  from  part  of  their 

organic  matter,  such  as  sedimentation  with  or  without  the  aid  of  coagulants, 
and  also  such  as  serving  as  food  for  worms  and  other  higher  forms  of  life 
than  the  bacteria.  It  is  not  the  scope  of  this  brief  paper,  however,  to  enter 
into  those  subjects  directly,  but  rather  to  confine  the  discussions  to  a  brief 
statement  of  our  present  understanding  of  the  chemistry  and  biology  of  the 
principal  sewage  processes.  The  several  means  of  oxidizing  the  organic 
matter  of  sewage,  so  as  to  guard  against  putrefaction  and  to  obtain  a  stable 
product,  are  as  follows: 

DIRECT  CHEMICAL  OXIDATION 

Dozens  of  investigators  in  the  field  of  sewage  purification  have  made 
tests  in  various  parts  of  the  world  with  regard  to  the  effect  upon  the  organic 
matter  in  sewage  of  a  liberal  application  of  atmospheric  oxygen,  such  as 
secured  by  forcing  air  through  the  liquid. 

Usually  there  is  a  small  quantity  of  organic  substances  of  an  unstable 
nature,  in  a  gaseous  or  soluble  form,  which  is  removed  by  the  application  of 
air.  How  far  this  is  direct  oxidation,  as  distinguished  from  a  physical  re- 
moval of  gases,  is  not  definitely  known.  Some  readily  oxidized  gases  may 
quite  likely  come  from  intestinal  discharges  and  disappear  on  the  applica- 
tion of  air.  As  a  general  proposition,  however,  it  may  be  stated  without 
qualification  that  the  organic  matter  in  sewage  is  not  capable  of  direct 
oxidation  by  atmospheric  oxygen. 

This  statement  must  not  be  confused,  however,  with  the  question  as  to 


416      SEWAGE   DISPOSAL  WITH   BESPECT    TO   OFFENSIVE    OBOES 

whether  or  not  sewage  is  rendered  more  stable  by  saturating  it  with  atmos- 
pheric oxygen.  Unquestionably,  the  more  oxygen  a  sewage  contains, 
whether  it  comes  from  the  atmosphere  or  from  oxidized  salts  such  as  the 
nitrates,  the  more  stable  it  is  and  the  longer  the  period  of  time  that  is 
required  for  the  sewage  to  reach  a  putrefying  condition- 

Thus,  if  a  given  sewage  should  contain  100  parts  per  million  of 
"  oxygen  consumed,"  expressed  in  units  of  oxygen  which  the  bacteria 
would  require  to  convert  all  of  the  organic  matter  to  a  stable  form,  then  it 
is  seen  that  if  ten  parts  or  twenty  parts  of  oxygen  were  to  be  introduced 
into  the  sewage,  decomposition  could  proceed  for  some  little  time  without 
putrefying  conditions  arising  and,  in  absolute  terms,  the  sewage  treated  in 
this  manner  would  contain  less  "  oxygen  consumed  "  than  would  the  same 
sewage  without  such  treatment. 

We  may  perhaps  facilitate  the  present  understanding  of  this  sub- 
ject by  saying  that  even  hypochlorite  of  lime  and  some  other  chemicals 
which  are  capable  of  releasing  oxygen  in  a  nascent  or  atomic  form  arc 
scarcely  capable  of  instantaneously  oxidizing  a  substantial  portion  of  the 
organic  matter  in  sewage.  This  is  substantiated  by  the  ease  -with 'which 
the  most  powerful  oxidizing  chemicals  may  be  detected  in  sewages  when 
slight  quantities  of  the  chemical  are  added  in  excess  of  that  needed  to 
combine  with  small  amounts  of  unstable  substances.  Even  -prolonged 
boiling  with  powerful  chemicals  does  not  oxidize  the  main  bulk  of  the 
organic  matter. 

INDIRECT  CHEMICAL  OXIDATION 

When  sewage  passes  quickly  over  the  surfaces  of  filters  containing 
gravel  or  stone  of  considerable  size,  it  is  found  that  when  the  filters  have 
become  "ripened"  the  organic  matter  is  directly  oxidized  to  a  considerable 
extent  in  an  almost  instantaneous  fashion.  Our  knowledge  of  this  phase 
of  filtration  is  largely  due  to  the  efforts  of  Dunbar,  who  has  shown  that 
when  sprinkling  filters  or  contact  filters  are  in  good  working  condition, 
the  gelatinous  coatings  seem  to  absorb  atmospheric  oxygen  within  their 
pores  so  that  the  organic  matters  passing  over  the  surfaces  are  oxidized  to  a 
considerable  degree. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  enter  into  the  technical  detail  of  this  feature  other 
than  to  show  the  importance  of  atmospheric  oxygen  and  of  using  it  to 
advantage  by  keeping  the  pores  of  a  filter  charged  with  it  at  air  times 
rather  than  endeavoring  to  accomplish  oxidation  directly  through  aeration 
with  atmospheric  oxygen. 


GEOKGE    W.    FULLEB,   '90  417 

DIRECT  BIOLOGICAL  OXIDATION 

Certain  species  of  bacteria  unquestionably  allow  certain  kinds  of 
organic  matter  to  become  oxidized  as  the  result  of  the  direct  action  of  the 
protoplasmic  activity  of  the  biological  cell.  For  instance,  sewage  obtained 
fresh  from  the  household  and  containing  the  oxygen  of  the  water  supply 
(of  which  it  is  largely  composed)  will  show  tremendous  growths  of  the 
bacteria  naturally  present  in  the  sewage.  Among  the  results  of  this  bac- 
terial activity  will  be  the  oxidation  of  the  carbonaceous  matter  to  carbon 
dioxide.  Some  of  the  hydrogen  also  seems  to  oxidize  to  water.  Other  con- 
stituents of  the  organic  matter  seem  to  be  released  by  cleavage  or  otherwise. 
Mtrogen,  for  instance,  seems  to  be  released  in  such  a  way  that  it  combines 
with  some  of  the  hydrogen  to  form  free  ammonia.  Sulphur  apparently  is 
released  in  the  presence  of  oxygen  as  a  cleavage  product,  although  our 
knowledge  of  this  element  is  not  nearly  so  clear  in  connection  with  oxida- 
tion as  it  is  with  reduction.  While  it  is  probably  released  by  cleavage  in  an 
oxidizing  fermentation,  it  is  also  likely  that  the  sulphur  is  oxidized  to  sul- 
phate so  that  sulphuretted  hydrogen  does  not  appear  as  a  conspicuous  feature 
of  fairly  fresh  sewage. 

The  main  point  that  we  do  know  thoroughly  well,  both  from  laboratory 
experience  and  from  a  study  of  sewage  purification  plants  on  a  large  scale, 
is  that  organic  matter,  in  the  presence  of  oxygen  and  of  the  right  kinds  of 
bacteria  that  seem  to  establish  themselves,  undergoes  a  substantial  oxida- 
tion. This  is  true  particularly  of  the  nitrogenous  organic  matter  which 
passes  through  the  well-known  cycle  of  organic  nitrogen,  nitrogen  as  free 
ammonia,  nitrites  and  nitrates.  In  the  last  form  it  is  in  the  state  of  highest 
oxidation  and  this  is  the  measure  used  for  recording  the  degree  of  oxidation 
which  has  taken  place  in  many  styles  of  filters. 

So  long  as  bacterial  oxidation  takes  place  with  the  sufficient  formation 
of  nitrates,  there  is  no  fear  as  regards  putrefactive  odors  from  the  effluent 
of  a  well-managed  sewage  disposal  works. 

INDIRECT  BIOLOGICAL  OXIDATION 

Some  bacteria  of  an  oxidizing  nature  accomplish  the  result,  as  above 
stated,  through  the  direct  protoplasmic  action  of  the  bacterial  cells.  Other 
bacteria  do  their  work  indirectly  by  excreting  certain  soluble  chemical 
products  known  as  enzymes  and  which,  under  conditions  not  known  in  all 
of  their  details,  will  produce  a  variety  of  chemical  changes,  among  which 
may  be  mentioned  oxidation. 


418     SEWAGE  DISPOSAL  WITH  EESPECT   TO   OFFENSIVE   ODORS 

FACTORS  CONTROLLING  BACTERIAL  GROWTHS 

It  is  well  to  look  somewhat  into  the  conditions  that  affect  the  growth 
of  bacteria  since  it  is  known  that  directly  or  indirectly  bacterial  growths 
have  so  much  influence  in  the  purification  of  sewage  either  for  good  or  bad. 

In  the  first  place,  it  is  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  amounts  of  organic 
matter  in  all  sewages  and  many  sewage  effluents,  are  very  great,  in  fact, 
many  times  greater  than  is  necessary  to  serve  as  a  food  for  millions  of  bac- 
ieria  per  cubic  centimeter.  When  bacterial  growths  come  to  an  end  in 
sewage  and  sewage  effluents  it  is  not  because  of  lack  of  food,  but  for  the 
reason  that  their  environment  becomes  unfavorable  owing  to  the  amount 
of  acid  or  other  by-products  that  are  secreted  by  bacterial  cells  in  the  pro- 
cess of  their  growth. 

This  calls  for  a  mention  briefly  of  the  important  elements  of  symbiosis 
and  antagonism  with  respect  to  the  behavior  of  bacteria  as  they  live  in  the 
organic  matter  of  sewage  and  sewage-polluted  waters.  Symbiosis  refers  to 
the  favorable  influence  which  some  species  of  bacteria  have  on  the  growth 
of  other  species.  Conversely,  antagonism  refers  to  the  retardation  which 
some  species  of  bacteria  have  on  the  growth  of  others. 

Bacterial  antagonism  is  doubtless  of  prime  importance  in  explaining 
the  fact  that  the  specific  germs  of  certain  intestinal  diseases,  such  as 
typhoid  fever,  not  only  do  not  multiply  in  natural  waters,  but  will  live,  as  a 
general  proposition,  for  the  shorter  period  of  time  in  those  waters  which 
contain  the  greater  amount  of  organic  matter  and  the  greater  bacterial  flora. 

Before  dismissing  the  subject  of  bacterial  oxidation  and  passing  to 
that  of  bacterial  putrefaction,  it  may  be  stated  briefly  that  bacteria  are 
divided  into  two  classes,  namely,  the  aerobes  and  the  anaerobes.  The  former 
grow  in  the  presence  of  oxygen  and  the  latter  in  the  absence  of  oxygen. 
On  strict  lines,  bacteria  are  divided  into  obligate  aerobes,  obligate  anaerobes, 
and  an  intermediate  or  facultative  class  that  can  adapt  itself  to  growing  in 
either  condition.  Many  of  the  sewage  bacteria  naturally  being  of  intestinal 
origin,  come  under  the  facultative  class  and  can  adapt  themselves  to  growth 
either  in  the  presence  or  absence  of  oxygen. 

It  is  possible  to  conceive  that  some  suspended  matters,  such  for  in- 
stance as  particles  of  feces,  may  contain  bacteria  which  are  thriving  as 
anaerobes,  although  the  particle  of  feces  may  be  surrounded  with  water 
from  which  the  dissolved  oxygen  has  not  been  exhausted  by  the  aerobic 
bacteria  growing  therein.  As  a  broad  practical  proposition,  however,  it 
may  be  said  that  bacteria  in  sewage  or  a  sewage  effluent  proceed  either 
upon  an  aerobic  or  anaerobic  basis.  By  that  is  meant  that  sewage  decom- 


GEORGE    W.    FULLER,   '90  419 

poses  through  an  oxidizing  fermentation  so  long  as  oxygen  is  available 
either  from  atmospheric  oxygen,  nitrates  or  any  chemical  compounds  which 
will  release  oxygen-  When  oxygen  becomes  exhausted  the  bacterial  flora 
adjust  themselves  to  the  new  environment  and  the  anaerobic  bacteria  pro- 
ceed with  the  reducing  or  "  putrefactive  "  fermentation. 

PUTREFACTION  OF  SEWAGE 

Theoretically,  organic  matter  may  be  reduced  in  several  ways,  as  fol- 
lows : 

1.  By  direct  chemical  means. 

2.  By  indirect  chemical  means. 

3.  By  direct  biological  means. 

4.  By  indirect  biological  means,  such  as  through  the  aid  of  enzymes. 
Brief  reference  will  here  be  made  to  the  manner  in  which  putrefaction 

is  accomplished,  and  special  attention  will  be  given  to  the  products  of 
putrefaction  and  the  means  of  avoiding  them. 

DIRECT  CHEMICAL  REDUCTION 

The  organic  matter  in  sewage  according  to  practical  observation  does 
not  respond  appreciably  to  chemical  reducing  agents.  Thus  hydrogen,  for 
instance,  released  atomically  as  in  the  case  of  certain  reducing  fermenta- 
tions, does  not  seem  to  affect  measurably  the  organic  matter  in  the  liquid 
undergoing  such  fermentation. 

INDIRECT  CHEMICAL  REDUCTION 

From  the  practical  viewpoint,  so  far  as  now  known,  indirect  chemical 
reduction  cuts  very  little  figure  in  sewage  disposal  operations.  It  may  be 
that  some  chemical  products  of  reducing  decompositions  may  influence 
further  decomposition  of  sewage,  but  it  is  believed  that  these  relate  to 
certain  mineral  salts  rather  than  to  compounds  of  an  organic  nature. 

DIRECT  BIOLOGICAL  REDUCTION 

We  know  that  as  soon  as  bacteria  practically  exhaust  the  oxygen  in  a 
sewage,  there  are  plenty  of  kinds  of  bacteria  that  will  proceed  upon  an 
anaerobic  basis  to  reduce  the  organic  matter  to  simpler  compounds.  The 
result  of  this  represents  a  complex  situation  because,  in  addition  to  certain 


420     SEWAGE  DISPOSAL  WITH  EESPECT   TO  OFFENSIVE   ODOES 

products  of  putrefaction  that  are  quite  well  known,  there  are  also  left  in 
the  sewage  other  residual  products  about  which  our  understanding  is  at 
present  quite  meager. 

Investigations  made  by  the  writer  at  the  Lawrence  Experiment  Station 
and  given  in  the  report  of  the  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Health  for 
1894,  p.  461,  indicate  that  the  direct  biological  reduction  of  organic  matter 
in  sewage  relates  to  dissolved  organic  matter  more  particularly  than  to 
suspended  organic  matter.  Whether  or  not  these  Lawrence  tests  are  repre- 
sentative of  a  wide  range  of  conditions  can  scarcely  be  told  from  the  avail- 
able evidence.  It  is  a  point  worth  further  study. 

Cleavage  products  are  characteristic  of  putrefaction  through  bacterial 
decomposition.  Marsh  gas  or  methane,  is,  of  course,  a  conspicuous  product 
of  the  anaerobic  decomposition  of  vegetable  matters  as  found  in  the  ordinary 
mill  pond,  and  is  likewise  conspicuous  in  the  decomposition  of  sewage.  Some 
forms  of  carbonaceous  matter,  notably  the  carbohydrates,  allow  carbon- 
dioxide  to  appear  as  a  cleavage  product,  and  so  far  as  this  end-product  is 
concerned  there  is  a  similarity  between  oxidizing  and  reducing  fermenta- 
tions of  organic  matter.  It  is  not  this  product,  however,  or  such  decom- 
positon  gases  as  marsh  gas,  nitrogen  or  hydrogen  that  is  related  to  objec- 
tionable odors. 

Hydrogen  sulphide  has  the  reputation  of  being  the  most  malodorous 
product  arising  from  the  putrefaction  of  sewage.  It  is  certainly  the  best 
known  of  the  malodorous  products  and  no  doubt  it  deserves  for  the  most 
part  the  reputation  which  it  has  received.  While  this  product  seems  to 
separate  as  a  cleavage  product  from  the  organic  compounds  containing  sul- 
phur, it  likewise  appears,  as  already  indicated,  to  be  characteristic  both  of 
oxidizing,  and  reducing  fermentations.  Its  appearance  is  obscured,  how- 
ever, in  an  oxidizing  fermentation,  on  account  of  its  being  promptly 
oxidized. 

Sulphuretted  hydrogen  appears  to  come  for  the  most  part  as  a  cleavage 
product  from  organic  matter,  yet  in  some  of  the  most  conspicuous  instances 
of  its  development  it  appears  to  come  in  part  as  a  result  of  the  reduction  of 
mineral  sulphates.  In  other  words,  desulphurization  through  bacterial 
agencies  may  be  a  most  important  factor  to  be  reckoned  with.  In  some 
measure  it  is  similar  to  the  denitrification  process  as  affected  by  bacterial 
agencies,  although  it  is  believed  to  be  of  much  less  frequent  occurrence.  It 
is  not,  however,  those  bacteria  generally  spoken  of  as  sulphur  bacteria  which 
desulphurize  the  mineral  sulphates.  The  true  sulphur  bacteria  will  live 
upon  sulphuretted  hydrogen  and  oxidize  it  to  metallic  sulphur.  On  the 
other  hand,  there  are  several  species  of  bacteria  which  are  capable  of  reduc- 


GEOKGE    W.    FULLEK,   '90  421 

ing  mineral  sulphates  to  sulphites  and  some  species  which  carry  the  reduc- 
tion to  the  sulphuretted  hydrogen  stage.  These  are  a  class  of  bacteria  about 
which  more  information  is  urgently  needed. 

It  is  not  to  be  inferred  that  sulphuretted  hydrogen  is  the  only  objec- 
tionable product  as  to  bad  smells  which  arise  from  sewage  decomposition. 
Although  our  knowledge  is  very  meager  as  to  other  products  they  undoubt- 
edly exist.  Among  such  a  list  may  be  included  mercaptan,  indol,  skatol, 
cadaverin,  etc.  It  is  highly  desirable  to  have  more  definite  information 
about  these  last-named  products  from  the  standpoint  of  their  relation  to 
objectionable  smells. 

Ordinarily,  these  products  appear  in  the  soluble  rather  than  the  gaseous 
state,  but  this  does  not  mean  that  they  will  not  volatilize  so  as  to  make 
noticeable  smells  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  disposal  plants. 

INDIRECT  BIOLOGICAL  REDUCTION 

There  is  no  doubt  that  enzymes  or  the  soluble  ferments  secreted  by 
bacteria  are  an  important  factor  in  the  reducing  decomposition  or  putrefac- 
tion of  organic  matter  in  sewage.  This  is  a  wide  field  for  laboratory  men 
to  investigate  under  the  conditions  found  in  practice.  It  relates,  in  fact, 
most  intimately  to  the  question  of  utilizing  to  best  advantage  the  so-called 
septic  process.  It  would  appear,  according  to  the  writer's  observations,  that 
the  time  interval  necessary  to  establish  the  septicization  may  be  largely 
accounted  for  by  the  period  required  by  the  bacteria  to  produce  the  enzymes 
in  sufficient  quantity  to  effect  a  substantial  decomposition  of  suspended 
organic  matter.  When  these  products  become  established,  however,  they 
proceed  in  a  most  active  manner  and  accomplish  the  liquefaction  of  organic 
matter.  It  seems  that  these  soluble  ferments  will  do  their  work  over  and 
over  again  for  some  time  without  material  exhaustion  provided  they  can 
work  in  an  environment  where  toxins  or  other  antagonistic  products  do  not 
arise  through  their  own  activities. 

PRODUCTS   OF   PUTREFACTION   IN   THEIR  RELATION  TO    OBJECTIONABLE 

SMELLS 

Of  the  soluble  but  easily  volatile  products  of  decomposition  such  as 
mercaptan,  indol  and  other  compounds  mentioned  above,  there  is  too  little 
information  now  available  to  allow  anything  specific  to  be  said.  But  as 
regards  the  gaseous  products  of  decomposition  and  especially  sulphuretted 
hydrogen  there  is  considerable  information  that  ought  to  be  applied  to 


422    SEWAGE  DISPOSAL  WITS  fcESPfiCt   TO  O^ENSlVU   Oi>ORg 

sewage  disposal  plants  in  a  somewhat  more  scientific  and  reliable  manner 
than,  is  frequently  the  case  under  present  conditions  of  practice. 

(Brief  mention  was  made  of  some  of  these  features  in  order  to 
accentuate  to  engineers  their  importance  in  practical  undertakings  as  well 
as  to  suggest  to  laboratory  men  that  there  is  considerable  important  work 
for  them  to  do  in  securing  needed  data  for  crystallizing  our  views  as  to  the 
proper  handling  of  these  subjects.) 

It  is  important  to  ascertain  the  conditions  under  which  hydrogen  sul- 
phide may  make  its  escape  so  as  to  produce  offensive  odors  at  some  distance 
removed  from  the  sewage  disposal  plant.  In  this  connection,  there  are 
several  features  to  be  borne  in  mind,  among  which  are  to  be  mentioned 
that  liquids  containing  gases  in  amounts  forming  only  a  small  percentage 
of  that  required  for  saturation  are  capable  of  releasing  some  of  the  gas 
at  the  surface  when  the  liquid  is  surrounded  with  an  atmosphere  free 
or  comparatively  free  of  the  gases  in  question. 

Another  factor  of  importance  is  that  such  gases  as  sulphuretted  hydro- 
gen may  accumulate  at  some  particular  place  such  as  within  the  sludge 
at  the  bottom  of  a  settling  tank,  and  mass  together  into  bubbles  of  such  size 
as  to  create  buoyancy  sufficient  to  cause  the  bubbles  to  rise  quickly  to  the 
surface  of  the  over-lying  liquid.  Sulphuretted  hydrogen  or  other  gases 
can  thus  make  an  escape  into  the  atmosphere  without  allowing  much 
opportunity  for  the  gases  to  be  held  back  either  through  saturation  of  the 
liquid  or  by  combination  of  the  gases  with  other  products  in  the  liquid 
sewage. 

Precipitation  of  hydrogen  sulphide  by  iron  compounds  which  form  a 
black  insoluble  product  is  apparently  an  important  factor  in  tracing  the 
history  of  the  sulphur  compounds  in  sewage  decomposition.  It  explains 
the  black  appearance  of  old  sewages. 

Still  another  point  is  that  there  is  apt  to  be  quite  an  irregular  dis- 
persion of  organic  sulphur  compounds  in  the  suspended  matter  of  the 
sewage,  particularly  deposits  in  the  sedimentation  tank.  This  feature 
may  perhaps  be  quite  important  and  explain  irregularities  in  the  release 
of  objectionable  smells  from  certain  sewage  disposal  devices  such  as  septic 
tanks. 

Associated  with  the  above  mentioned  factors  is  the  condition  of  the 
atmosphere  at  times  when  the  odors  are  most  noticeable  as  to  intensity 
and  distance  from  the  disposal  plant.  Aerial  nuisances  as  to  odor  vary 
much  with  the  barometric  conditions  and  wind  velocity,  as  they  affect  the 
dispersion  and  oxidation  of  gases  in  the  atmosphere.  Thus,  at  many 
disposal  plants  it  is  found  that  objectionable  odors  are  most  noticeable  as 


W.   FULLEE,  >90 

to  intensity  and  distance  from  the  plant  on  what  are  ordinarily  spoken  of 
as  "muggy"  days.  The  barometric  pressure  on  such  occasions  no  doubt 
prevents  the  gases,  particularly  a  heavy  one  like  sulphuretted  hydrogen, 
from  rising  as  high  in  the  atmosphere  as  ordinarily  is  the  case.  Further- 
more, the  dispersion  of  the  decomposition  gases  in  the  atmosphere  is  much 
less  rapid  than  usual  and  this  perhaps  prevents  aerial  oxidation  at  normal 
speed.  Associated  with  this  are  no  doubt  a  variety  of  other  factors  about 
which  information  is  quite  meager  at  present.  It  is  perhaps  worth  men- 
tioning that  some  of  the  malodorous  products  may  not  be  present  in  a 
chemical  state  such  as  to  promote  oxidation.  They  may  be  combined 
with  other  compounds  which  retard  the  reaction  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air. 
Before  dismissing  this  subject  it  will  perhaps  be  well  to  speak  briefly 
of  the  fact  that  at  some  disposal  plants  there  are  characteristic  odors  other 
than  of  putrefaction.  These  odors  are  sometimes  spoken  of  as  being 
similar  to  laundry  odors  or  odors  resembling  a  raw  turnip.  The  odor  of 
cooking  of  certain  vegetables  is,  of  course,  a  conspicious  one  under  the 
circumstances.  It  is  mentioned  here  to  accentuate  the  thought  that  there 
are  a  good  many  decomposition  products  which  have  an  individuality  which 
is  not  specifically  offensive,  although  it  is  noticeable  and  objected  to  by 
some.  At  the  same  time,  such  products  suggest  that  hydrogen  sulphide  is 
not  the  whole  story,  and  that  it  is  important  to  study  other  compounds  in 
connection  with  the  question  of  objectionable  odors. 

PKOPER    METHODS    FOR    GUARDING    AGAINST    ODORS    IN    SYSTEMS    OF 

COLLECTING  SEWERS 

For  some  thirty  years  beginning  with  the  comprehensive  report  out- 
lining the  scientific  principles  on  which  European  sewers  were  built, 
prepared  by  Mr.  Rudolph  Hering  at  the  request  of  the  National  Board  of 
Health,  it  has  been  known  that  sewage  should  be  brought  to  the  point  of 
disposal  as  promptly  as  possible  and  with  minimum  opportunity  for 
putrefaction  of  stranded  materials  within  the  pipes.  As  knowledge  has 
increased  with  respect  to  decomposition  of  sewage,  it  has  become  clearly 
recognized  that  additional  care  should  be  required  in  the  collection  of 
sewage  from  the  standpoint  of  guarding  against  objectionable  odors.  The 
principal  features  requiring  attention  are  as  follows: 

VENTILATION  OF  SEWERS 

It  is  highly  important  to  provide  fresh  air  in  the  underground 
channels  comprising  the  collecting  pipes  of  the  sewerage  system  in  order  to 


424     SEWAGE  DISPOSAL  WITH  EESPECT   TO   OFFENSIVE   ODOES 

maintain  bacterial  processes,  as  far  as  possible,  on  an  aerobic  basis.  Lack 
of  ventilation  tends  to  promote  in  places  a  needlessly  rapid  exhaustion  of 
the  oxygen  dissolved  in  the  water  supply  as  it  is  discharged  into  the 
sewers,  and  it  is  not  difficult  to  find  some  cases  where  objectionable  odors 
exist  in  the  collecting  sewers  themselves.  In  some  instances  good  venti- 
lation will  correct  this  difficulty.  In  other  instances,  the  fault  is  a  fund- 
amental one  in  the  design  of  the  sewers,  and  one  which  ventilation  will 
help,  but  not  cure. 

HOUSE  CONNECTION  TRAPS 

Where  plumbing  fixtures  are  provided  with  suitable  traps  and  with 
vents  leading  to  a  soil  pipe  that  extends  above  the  roof  of  the  building, 
no  good  seems  to  be  accomplished  by  putting  a  trap  on  the  house  connection 
through  which  the  sewage  passes  from  the  building  to  the  street  sewer. 
Connections  that  are  so  trapped  frequently  have  their  interior  coated  with 
a  slimy  deposit  in  which  more  or  less  putrefaction  is  taking  place,  whereas 
similar  connections  that  are  not  trapped  have  the  sides  of  the  pipes  compara- 
tively free  from  deposits  and  bacterial  growths.  There  are  still  some  differ- 
ences of  opinion  in  this  regard,  but  it  is  believed  that  it  would  be  of 
material  assistance  for  plumbing  codes  hereafter  to  call  for  untrapped 
house  connections. 

NON-SUBSIDING  VELOCITIES 

Many  of  the  old  sewers,  both  in  this  country  and  abroad,  were  of  such 
a  design  that  the  sewage  flowing  through  them  deposits  more  or  less  of 
the  suspended  matters,  including  some  of  a  fecal  nature.  This  is  probably 
much  more  true  of  the  so-called  "  combined "  sewers,  which  convey  both 
stormwater  and  sanitary  sewage,  than  of  the  separate  sewers,  which  convey 
sanitary  sewage  alone.  This  is  noticeable  where  large  storm  sewers,  in 
times  of  rain,  discharge  very  -foul  matters  for  some  minutes  following  an 
increase  in  flow.  It  is  not  at  all  unlikely  that,  during  the  interval  elapsing 
since  the  last  preceding  storm,  some  organic  matter  may  have  become 
stranded  upon  the  interior  of  the  sewer  under  conditions  such  as  to  pro- 
mote anaerobic  decomposition.  It  is  possible  that  putrefaction  may  result 
to  an  extent  that  exercises  considerable  unfavorable  influence  on  the  broad 
question  of  sewage  disposal  without  odors. 

SMOOTH  INTERIOR  SURFACES 

Where  the  interior  surfaces  of  the  sewers  are  rough  and  where  pro- 
jecting masonry  allows  deposits  to  be  built  up  in  front  of  it,  it  is  quite 
possible  that  in  these  deposits  anaerobic  conditions  are  established  in  a 


GEOEGE    W.    FULLEB,   '90  425 

manner  and  to  an  extent  that  is  much  more  conducive  to  objectionable  odors 
than  is  generally  considered  in  this  country  by  those  who  deal  with  reason- 
ably well-designed  and  constructed  sewers.  The  formation  of  enzymes  or 
soluble  fermentation  compounds  may  do  much  more  towards  bringing 
about  putrefaction  than  hitherto  realized  in  this  country.  German  investi- 
gators believe  this  to  be  true  where  they  have  studied  old  combined  sewers. 

FLUSHING 

First-class  sewerage  practice  calls  for  the  installation  of  flushing 
tanks  at  the  head  of  all  sewer  lines  in  order  to  wash  away  stranded  particles 
of  fecal  matter  in  those  portions  of  the  sewer  where  the  ordinary  flow  is 
insufficient  to  maintain  a  scouring  velocity.  Such  flushing  is  sometimes 
done  by  automatic  flush  tanks  discharging  every  few  hours.  From  the 
bacteriological  standpoint,  it  would  probably  suffice  to  have  flushing  done 
once  a  week  during  the  cold  season  of  the  year  and  say  twice  a  week  in 
the  warmer  season  of  the  year. 

In  the  larger  sewers,  it  is,  of  course,  not  feasible  to  flush  readily  from 
automatic  flushing  tanks,  but  it  is  practicable  to  keep  decomposing  organic 
matter  from  remaining  lodged  upon  the  interior  surface  of  the  sewers- 
This  may  be  done  either  by  hand,  with  a  hose  or  flush  gates,  or  by  putting 
in  stop-planks  at  manholes  and  allowing  sewage  to  build  up  in  depth  until 
a  head  is  established  sufficient  to  create  a  scouring  velocity. 

PROPER  METHODS  FOR  GUARDING  AGAINST  ODORS  IN  SEWAGE  DISPOSAL 

WORKS 

DILUTION 

Degree  of  Dilution.  In  1887  Mr.  Eudolph  Hering  recommended 
a  dilution  of  three  and  one-third  cubic  feet  of  water  per  second,  per  thou- 
sand population  connected  with  the  sewers,  as  the  basis  for  the  design  for 
the  Chicago  drainage  canal.  That  project  was  put  in  service  in  January, 
1900,  and  is  now  providing  approximately  the  degree  of  dilution  indicated 
by  the  original  design.  Precise  data  are  not  at  hand  to  indicate  whether  or 
not  the  organic  matter  is  provided  with  sufficent  oxygen  to  allow  bacterial 
decomposition  to  proceed  at  all  times  during  the  flow  of  twenty-eight  miles 
on  an  aerobic  basis.  But  in  a  general  way  it  seems  that  the  dilution  above 
mentioned  is  adequate  with  respect  to  guarding  against  offensive  smells 
so  far  as  domestic  sewage  is  concerned.  Trade  wastes  at  Chicago,  partic- 
ularly from  the  stock  yards  district,  seem  to  indicate  the  desirability  of 


426     SEWAGE  DISPOSAL  WlTfi  RESPECT   TO   OFFENSIVE   ODORS 

making  the  dilution  somewhat  greater  than  above  stated  unless  such 
wastes  are  treated  before  entering  the  sewers.  It  is  understood  that 
during  warm  weather  some  odors  are  noticeable  at  or  near  the  bear-trap 
dam  at  the  foot  of  the  canal.  At  this  place,  at  the  power  plant  and  at  the 
falls  in  Joliet,  111.,  it  is  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  considerable  opportunity 
for  aeration  is  afforded  the  diluted  Chicago  sewage.  The  necessary  degree 
of  dilution  as  studied  by  the  engineers  of  the  Massachusetts  State  Board 
of  Health  has  been  found  under  different  conditions  to  range  from  3.5 
to  6  cubic  feet  per  second  as  the  necessary  flow  of  water  for  each 
thousand  population  connected  with  the  sewers.  These  observations  are 
based  upon  small  streams  in  many  cases  where  manufacturing  wastes  are 
a  factor  of  importance,  through  the  use  of  oxygen  which  they  divert  from 
that  needed  for  the  sewage. 

It  is  also  true  in  some  cases  that  deposits  of  sludge  in  mill  ponds  and 
elsewhere  likewise  are  entitled  to  consideration  so  that,  as  a  general  rule, 
it  may  be  said  that  the  Chicago  basis  of  dilution  for  domestic  sewage  seems 
to  be  adequate  to  guard  against  objectionable  smells  so  far  as  domestic 
sewage  is  concerned  in  well-oxygenated  streams  where  deposits  of  sludge 
are  not  a  factor. 

Dispersion.  In  a  great  many  cases  suitable  sewage  disposal  by  dilu- 
tion is  seriously  handicapped  through  failure  to  disperse  the  sewage 
adequately  in  the  flowing  stream.  That  is  to  say,  some  portions  of  the 
stream  near  the  margin  are  grossly  overtaxed  with  sewage  with  resulting 
putrefaction,  whereas  toward  the  center  the  capacity  of  the  stream  to 
receive  sewage  is  but  partially  utilized.  This  applies  also  to  sewer  outlets 
on  tidal  flats  at  many  places.  The  only  fair  and  reasonable  way  to  utilize 
the  dilution  method  of  sewage  disposal  ia  to  provide  for  prompt  and  com- 
plete dispersion  of  the  sewage  in  sufficient  water  so  that  the  exhaustion  of 
oxygen  will  not  result.  Failure  to  do  this  has  done  much  to  give  this 
method  of  disposal  an  underserved  reputation  of  producing  objectionable 
odors. 

Sludge  Banks.  The  discharge  of  crude  sewage  into  various  streams 
results,  of  course,  in  a  checking  of  the  velocity  and  a  consequent  deposition 
of  coarse  suspended  matters  which  form  sludge  banks.  Where  range  in 
water  level,  especially  on  tidal  flats,  is  such  that  the  bottom  is  exposed  at 
times,  these  sludge  banks  may  putrefy  and  give  off  objectionable  odors. 
In  some  cases  the  conditions  may  be  such  that  it  may  be  advisable  to  allow 
the  great  bulk  of  the  suspended  solids  to  flow  into  the  dilating  stream 
and  remove  them  by  dredging  with  such  frequency  as  to  prevent  serious 
putrefaction.  Combining  the  effect  of  sludge  banks  with  inadequate  dis- 


G20&GE   W.   DULLES,  »flO  427 

persion  of  sewage  in  the  flowing  stream,  it  is  not  unusual  to  find  that  in 
the  shallow  water  near  the  shore  of  quite  large  rivers  there  are  objectionable 
odors  notwithstanding  that  near  the  middle  of  the  river  the  water  contains 
a  great  surplus  of  oxygen. 

Floating  Solids.  This  feature  does  not  deal  so  much  with  the 
question  of  objectionable  smells  as  it  does  with  the  unsightly  appearance 
of  the  diluting  body  of  water,  due  to  readily  visible  particles  of  matters 
entering  with  the  sewage.  Where  the  diluting  water  is  fairly  free  of 
turbidity,  it  is  especially  important,  as  is  done  in  many  cases  in  Europe, 
to  consider  means  for  the  removal  of  the  coarser  solids  by  screens  or 
otherwise. 

Grease  and  Scum.  What  has  just  been  said  with  respect  to  the  coarser 
solids  applies  in  some  measure  to  those  fatty  or  oily  substances  which  have 
a  specific  gravity  lighter  than  water,  and  hence  a  tendency  to  appear  upon 
the  surface  of  the  water  into  which  the  liquid  is  discharged.  These  sub- 
stances do  not  relate  particularly  to  the  odor  question,  but  rather  to  the 
question  of  unsightly  appearance  of  the  diluting  water-  They  can  be 
removed  to  a  considerable  extent  with  the  aid  of  baffles  and  scum  boards. 

Protection  of  Fish  Life.  A  number  of  streams  in  this  country  have 
caused  considerable  trouble  at  times  as  to  offensive  smells  clue  to  the  killing 
of  large  numbers  of  fish,  as  the  result  of  exhausting  the  dissolved  atmos- 
pheric oxygen  in  the  water.  This  question  brings  up  one  of  the  mooted 
points  at  present  in  the  disposal  of  sewage  by  dilution,  namely,  the  safe 
margin  of  residual  oxygen  to  allow  in  the  water  receiving  the  sewage.  As 
a  general  proposition,  the  available  evidence  indicates  that  ordinary  major 
fish  may  be  reasonably  provided  for  when  the  dissolved  atmospheric  oxygen 
in  the  body  of  the  diluting  water  does  not  become  materially  less  than  about 
30  per  cent  of  that  necessary  for  saturation. 

Residual  Dissolved  Oxygen.  It  has  recently  been  suggested  that  a 
margin  of  70  per  cent  of  that  necessary  for  saturation  of  the  diluting  water 
should  be  provided  in  ascertaining  the  proper  degree  of  dilution  of  sewage. 
It  is  believed  that  this  is  seriously  in  error  as  an  unqualified  general  propo- 
sition. It  may  be  predicated  perhaps  to  a  considerable  extent  upon  obser- 
vations made  at  points  where  sludge  banks  and  improper  dispersion  of  the 
sewage  have  caused  offensive  conditions  to  arise,  but  which  could  not  exist 
if  the  above  features  were  properly  carried  out.  The  extraordinary  aspect 
of  this  proposition  is  that  it  would  eliminate  some  of  the  largest  rivers  in 
this  country  from  the  list  of  those  capable  of  properly  receiving  sewage  by 
dilution,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  such  rivers  after  proper  filtration 
serve  as  the  source  of  satisfactory  domestic  water  supplies.  On  the  other 


428     SEWAGE   DISPOSAL  WITH  EESPECT   TO   OFFENSIVE   ODOES 

hand,  it  is  quite  probable  that  the  degree  of  dilution  established  at  Chicago 
might  have  to  be  increased  materially  if  certain  kinds  of  fish  life  were  to  be 
satisfactorily  taken  care  of  as  distinguished  from  guarding  against  putre- 
factive odors.  On  the  latter  score  there  is  no  question  about  aerobic 
conditions  prevailing  with  a  substantial  absence  of  offensive  smells  so  long 
as  there  is  a  small  but  well-defined  margin  of  dissolved  oxygen  present  at 
all  times  and  at  all  places. 

REMOVAL  or  SUSPENDED  SOLIDS 

The  extent  to  which  it  is  advisable  to  remove  suspended  matter  from 
sewage  depends  largely  upon  the  manner  of  its  final  treatment.  In  the  case 
of  dilution  where  there  is  ample  dissolved  oxygen,  as  above  mentioned,  that 
method  of  disposal  calls  for  the  consideration  of  the  removal  only  of  the 
coarser  solids.  Some  styles  of  nitration,  however,  for  reasons  of  economy 
and  efficiency  call  for  clarification  to  a  substantial  extent  for  the  reason  that 
it  is  easier  and  cheaper,  all  things  considered,  to  filter  a  clarified  sewage 
than  an  unclarified  sewage. 

The  proper  scope  of  the  different  devices  for  the  removal  of  suspended 
matter  and  the  conditions  under  which  they  may  operate  with  reasonable 
freedom  from  objectionable  smell  is  outlined  as  follows: 

Grit  Chambers.  These  arrangements  comprise  very  small  compart- 
ments in  which  coarse  matters  may  be  removed  by  sedimentation.  As  the 
term  is  ordinarily  applied,  it  refers  to  the  deposition  of  road  wash  in  connec- 
tion with  a  system  of  combined  sewers.  If  these  basins  are  made  too  large 
they  add  complications  on  account  of  having  too  much  organic  matter  in 
the  deposited  solids.  A  reasonable  allowance  is  to  provide  a  velocity  rang- 
ing from  6  to  12  inches  per  second  which  corresponds  to  a  sedimentation 
period  of  only  a  very  few  minutes.  Naturally  the  sewage  after  passage 
through  such  a  basin  contains  substantially  its  full  quantity  of  organic 
matter,  and  hence  the  putrescibility  of  the  sewage  is  affected  but  slightly. 
In  connection  with  dilution  methods  it  is  sometimes  better,  however,  to 
remove  this  coarse  matter  in  basins  rather  than  to  have  to  dredge  it  from 
slips  and  flats  after  it  has  been  deposited  in  the  body  of  the  diluting  water. 
Where  works  of  artificial  construction  involving  fairly  complete  purifica- 
tion are  installed,  it  is  frequently  found  cheaper  to  remove  the  suspended 
matter  of  a  mineral  nature  as  a  preliminary  step  rather  than  to  allow  it  to 
become  mixed  with  the  suspended  organic  matter  which  needs  more  careful 
treatment  when  guarding  against  odors. 

Screening.  Coarse  screens  are  of  importance  in  protecting  pumps  in 
plants  where  pumping  is  required.  In  the  case  of  disposal  by  dilution, 


GEORGE    W.    FULLER,   >90  429 

screening  is  frequently  desirable  to  remove  unsightly  solids  from  the 
sewage.  The  position  of  screens  in  connection  with  filtration  plants  is 
now  in  an  unsettled  state,  particularly  with  regard  to  fine  screens.  It 
goes  without  saying  that  th,e  solids  which  are  capable  of  being  removed 
by  screens  should  be  taken  care  of  in  a  sanitary  way  without  producing 
offensive  smells  regardless  of  the  detail  of  procedure.  On  this  basis  it 
becomes  a  question  of  determining  whether  fine  screens  afford  a  cheaper 
and  better  way  of  treating  the  solid  matters  than  do  settling  tanks  with 
suitable  baffles  and  scum  boards.  The  final  answer  to  this  question  can 
scarcely  be  given  from  the  present  evidence.  In  a  general  way  the  ques- 
tion of  economy  is  an  important  one  and  varies  with  the  size  and  local 
features  of  the  works.  For  large  plants  mechanically-operated  screens 
have  a  considerable  field  of  usefulness,  whereas  the  cost  of  maintenance 
frequently  precludes  the  use  of  screens  for  very  small  plants.  The  dis- 
posal of  the  screenings  is  an  item  of  considerable  expense  unless  they  can  be 
freed  of  water  so  that  they  can  be  put  under  a  boiler  of  some  convenient 
power  plant  or  taken  to  a  city  incinerator.  Disposal  by  burial  affords 
good  results  during  the  warmer  seasons  of  the  year  with  good  management. 
In  northern  climates  burial  is  not  feasible  during  the  winter  and  accumu- 
lations of  screenings  sometimes  give  offense  in  the  spring  before  the  winter 
accumulations  are  finally  disposed  of.  Incinerating  plants  for  screenings 
alone  require  considerable  fuel,  but  excluding  the  item  of  expense  this  is 
a  suitable  way  of  disposing  of  the  screenings  without  local  offense. 

Scum  Boards.  There  is  considerable  room  for  improvement  in  arrang- 
ing scum  boards  or  baffles  so  as  to  retain  suspended  matters  which  float  upon 
the  surface  of  the  sewage,  as  it  passes  through  basins  for  sedimentation  or 
other  purposes.  In  small  plants  as  already  intimated  it  is  quite  likely 
that  screens  may  be  advantageously  eliminated  if  at  frequent  intervals 
the  surface  accumulations  are  thoroughly  removed  and  disposed  of  in 
a  satisfactory  manner. 

Sedimentation.  Depending  upon  the  strength  of  the  sewage  and  the 
size  of  the  sedimentation  basin,  it  is  perfectly  feasible  to  remove  from  50 
to  75  per  cent  of  the  total  suspended  matter  in  sewage  and  about  one-half 
of  this  percentage  of  the  total  organic  matter  as  measured  by  ordinary 
laboratory  methods.  Eeduction  of  putrescibility,  however,  according  to 
Hoover's  tests  at  Columbus,  is  only  about  80  per  cent  as  great  as  is  the 
removal  of  total  organic  matter.  As  regards  freedom  from  odors,  it  is 
necessary  to  prevent  putrefaction  in  the  chamber  in  which  sedimentation 
occurs.  Properly  speaking,  this  applies  to  the  surface  of  the  liquid,  and 
to  the  deposits  upon  the  walls  and  particularly  to  those  deposits  which 


430     SEWAGE   DISPOSAL  WITH  KESPECT   TO   OFFENSIVE   ODORS 

appear  upon  the  floor  of  the  basin  and  are  ordinarily  spoken  of  as  "  sludge." 
This  sludge  disposal  question  is  by  far  the  greatest  single  problem  in  con- 
nection with  sewage  purification,  and  with  ordinary  sedimentation  basins 
the  quantity  amounts  to  from  five  to  seven  cubic  yards  per  million  gallons 
of  sewage  treated,  with  90  per  cent  of  water  in  the  sludge.  Where  chem- 
icals are  employed  to  facilitate  clarification  by  sedimentation,  the  removal 
of  suspended  matter  reaches  from  80  to  90  per  cent,  and  that  of  the  total 
organic  matter  ranges  from  50  to  55  per  cent.  The  amount  of  sludge  is 
about  double  that  obtained  with  plain  sedimentation  or  even  more  where 
the  percentage  of  water  is  very  high.  With  these  •  devices  freedom  from 
odor  is  also  predicated  upon  cleaning  at  sufficiently  frequent  intervals  to 
guard  against  putrefaction. 

DISPOSAL  OF  SLUDGE 

As  already  stated,  this  is  the  great  problem  of  sewage  disposal,  and 
reference  will  be  made  briefly  to  the  principal  methods  of  disposal  of  sludge 
and  particularly  to  the  latest  arrangements  for  the  septicization  in  two- 
story  tanks  of  the  Emscher  type. 

Sludge  Beds.  The  fairly  fresh  sludge  removed  from  plain  sedimenta- 
tion chambers  is  frequently  applied  to  special  sludge  beds  where  the  thick 
liquid  becomes  a  solid  mass,  due  to  the  removal  of  water,  partly  by  evapora- 
tion and  partly  by  percolation  through  the  material  to  which  the  wet 
sludge  is  applied.  Generally  there  is  removed  with  the  sludge  and  scum 
considerable  fairly  clear  liquid  which  lies  between  the  bottom  deposit  and 
the  surface  scum.  The  organic  matter  is  in  a  state  where  it  readily  put- 
refies and  odors  of  putrefaction  are  liable  to  result  in  the  old-fashioned 
sludge  bed.  After  the  material  has  lost  a  part  of  its  water  it  is  sometimes 
carted  away  by  farmers  to  be  utilized  for  fertilizing  purposes,  but  this  is 
not  a  procedure  that  can  be  relied  upon.  Taken  altogether,  the  sludge 
bed  is  quite  an  unsatisfactory  method  on  a  large  scale  of  disposing  of  sewage 
sludge  from  the  modern  standpoint.  Where  it  is  applied  with  moderate 
success  its  operation  is  usually  confined  to  the  cooler  seasons  of  the  year 
when  the  sludge  may  become  thoroughly  dried  and  removed  before  warm 
weather  sets  in. 

Sludge  Lagoons.  This  procedure  is  very  similar  to  the  sludge  bed, 
except  that  dikes  are  employed  so  as  to  permit  of  storing  the  sludge  to  a 
much  greater  depth  than  in  the  ordinary  sludge  bed.  In  some  places,  as 
at  Reading,  Pa.,  this  has  worked  out  satisfactorily  for  several  years.  The 
sludge  disappears  in  volume  to  the  extent  of  about  50  per  cent.  Objec- 


GEOEGE    W.    FULLEE,   '90  431 

tionable  odors  are  noticed  at  times  within  100  to  200  feet  of  the  lagoons, 
but  are  not  noticeable  to  a  greater  distance  according  to  present  evidence. 
Whether  this  would  be  true  with  the  sludge  from  all  plants  is,  of  course, 
uncertain.  Covers  for  lagoons  have  some  merit  as  compared  with  open 
lagoons,  but  except  for  unusual  conditions  their  utility  is  far  less  than 
the  arrangements  like  the  Emscher  tank. 

Sludge  Trenches.  Sludge  trenches,  when  covered,  allow  sewage 
sludge  to  become  well  rotted  and  with  the  odors  greatly  minimized  due  to 
their  passage  through  the  material  overlying  the  trench.  For  small  plants 
this  process  seems  to  have  much  merit,  especially  in  the  northern  climates. 
For  large  plants,  however,  it  does  not  afford  competition  with  the  Emscher 
tanks. 

Dilution.  This  method  is  rarely  applicable  on  account  of  the  peculiar 
conditions  which  are  required  in  order  to  justify  its  use-  Its  applicability 
relates  to  conditions  where  sludge  may  be  allowed  to  accumulate  in  tanks 
for  months  at  a  time  and  then  discharged  at  time  of  flood  flow  into  a  sizable 
river.  Its  practical  merit  depends  upon  whether  the  storage  facilities  for 
sludge  for  some  months  at  a  time  are  a  simpler  and  cheaper  arrangement 
than  devices  for  the  removal  and  disposal  of  sludge  at  frequent  intervals. 
A  dilution  of  sludge  of  about  one  to  eight  hundred  seems  to  provide  satis- 
factory results  according  to  observations  at  Columbus,  Ohio,  in  the  Scioto 
River  when  it  is  in  flood. 

Septicization  in  One-story  Tanks.  The  ordinary  septic  tank  is 
essentially  a  plain  sedimentation  tank  operated  so  that  the  sludge  on  the 
floor  of  the  tank,  with  whatever  scum  accumulates  on  the  surface,  is 
removed  only  at  very  infrequent  intervals.  It  has  its  warm  advocates  and 
its  strong  opponents.  Likewise  it  has  merits  and  demerits. 

Briefly,  its  advantages  are  as  follows:  The  first  results  from  the 
clarification  due  to  sedimentation,  although  there  is  no  reason  to  believe 
that  the  septic  effluent  is  any  easier  to  purify  than  is  the  effluent  of  plain 
sedimentation  tanks  giving  equal  clarification.  The  mixing  accomplished 
in  the  tanks  is  of  some  aid  in  making  the  work  more  uniform  for  filters  and 
other  following  treatments.  As  to  sludge,  there  is  some  liquefaction  and 
gasification  of  suspended  organic  matter.  The  advantage  of  this  consists 
in  the  reduced  volume,  permitting  a  much  longer  period  between  cleanings 
than  is  possible  with  plain  sedimentation  tanks.  Removal  of  sludge  under 
some  circumstances  may  occur  only  once  in  four  or  five  years  or  so,  where  the 
sewage  is  only  of  a  domestic  origin,  although  it  may  be  necessary  to  clean 
the  "tanks  once  a  year  or  of tener.  Septic  sludge  under  some  circumstances 
is  considered  easier  to  handle  than  is  the  sludge  from  plain  sedimentation 


432     SEWAGE   DISPOSAL  WITH  EESPECT   TO   OFFENSIVE   ODOKS 

tanks,  and  this  is  probably  true  if  the  decomposable  organic  matter  is  well 
rotted  out  or  humified. 

The  disadvantages  of  a  single-story  septic  tank  consists  principally  in 
the  fact  that  the  detention  of  the  sewage  in  the  tanks  is  under  such  cir- 
cumstances that  the  dissolved  oxygen  in  the  effluent  is  exhausted  and  that 
putrefaction  has  commenced.  This  means  that  fresh  sewage  is  not  to  be 
found  in  the  septic  effluent  under  ordinary  circumstances,  and  consequently 
there  is  a  greater  likelihood  of  putrefactive  odors.  The  products  of 
putrefaction  of  the  sludge  rise  through  the  flowing  liquid,  and  even  in  closed 
tanks  some  objectionable  odors  become  diffused  in  the  neighboring  air. 
Similarly,  the  products  of  putrefaction  cause  bacterial  products,  commonly 
known  as  toxins,  to  enter  the  flowing  liquid  and  under  some  circumstances 
to  interfere  with  the  subsequent  purification.  Gas  ebullition  with  fresh 
sewages  frequently  lifts  suspended  matter  so  as  to  form  a  heavy  scum, 
the  organic  matter  of  which  is  not  septicized.  This  gas  ebullition  also 
lifts  sediment  from  the  botton  and  in  this  way  sometimes  produces  very 
serious  filter  clogging  unless  such  sludge  in  the  septic  effluent  is  removed 
by  devices  which  at  best  are  expensive.  The  stirring  up  of  the  sediment 
layer  sometimes  causes  a  septic  tank  to  be  put  out  of  service  and  perhaps 
cleaned  when  it  is  very  inconvenient  to  attend  to  such  cleaning.  If  it  is 
not  cleaned  the  septicization  or  the  complete  rotting  out  of  the  unstable 
portions  of  the  suspended  organic  matter  does  not  proceed  reliably  so  as  to 
make  an  inodorous  sludge.  The  reasons  why  septicization  in  a  tank  that 
is  standing  idle  does  not  proceed  seems  to  be  partly  due  to  the  absence  of 
incoming  food  for  bacterial  growth  and  partly  to  the  dying  off  of  certain 
desirable  kinds  of  bacteria  due  to  the  products  of  bacterial  growth.  The 
result  of  this  is  that  some  unstable  organic  matter  remains  in  the  sludge 
which  is  not  humified  or  reduced  to  an  inodorous  product  that  may  be 
satisfactorily  discharged  on  open  beds.  Practice  shows  that  stable  organic 
matter  and  mineral  matter  in  suspension  are  not  liquefied.  When  this 
style  of  tank  is  working  to  best  advantage  as  regards  the  complete  rotting 
of  the  sediment  layer,  the  disposition  of  the  liquid,  at  times  of  cleaning 
and  the  under-septicization  of  the  scum,  still  have  to  be  contended  with. 
These  factors  add  much  to  the  odor  under  some  circumstances.  Covers  for 
single-story  septic  tanks  tend  to  minimize  the  odors  noticeable  at  a  distance 
from  the  plant. 

Septicization  in  Two-story  Tanks.  These  tanks  have  recently  been 
referred  to  as  the  Imhoff  or  Emscher  tanks.  They  have  their  origin  from 
a  scientific  standpoint  in  certain  tests  made  a  dozen  years  ago  by  Mr. 
Clark  at  the  Lawrence  Experiment  Station  on  the  septicization  of  sludge  in 


GBOEGE    W.    FULLEE,   '90  433 

compartments  separate  from  the  sedimentation  tank  itself.  These  studies 
resulted  as  a  first  practical  outcome  in  the  so-called  Travis  hydrolitic  tank 
at  Hampton,  England.  These  tanks  have  horizontal  partitions  or  baffles 
which  separate  the  uper  sedimentation  chamber  from  the  lower  digestion 
chamber  in  which  septicization  takes  place.  The  partitions  have 
a  steep  slope  which  allows  the  deposits  or  sediment  to  slide  through  a  slot 
at  the  bottom  into  the  digestion  chamber  substantially  as  fast  as  it  appears 
in  the  sedimentation  chamber  above.  The  lower  edge  of  one  of  these 
partitions  extends  beyond  the  edge  of  the  other  partition.  In  this  way  the 
gas  resulting  from  the  septicization  in  the  lower  compartment  cannot 
pass  vertically  into  the  digestion  chamber  but  makes  its  escape  through 
vents  at  the  side.  The  principal  difference  between  the  Travis  tank  and 
the  Imhoff  or  Emscher  tanks  is  that  in  the  former  a  certain  portion  say 
20  per  cent  or  so  of  the  sewage  passes  regularly  through  the  digestion 
chamber.  In  the  Imhoff  tank,  however,  none  of  the  contents  of  the  diges- 
tion chamber  are  allowed  to  mingle  with  the  effluent  of  the  sedimentation 
chamber  above. 

These  two-story  tanks  seem  to  possess  all  the  advantages  of  the  single - 
story  tank  and  they  are  superior  in  that  they  allow  a  settled  effluent  to 
be  obtained  which  is  substantially  as  fresh  as  the  unsettled  sewage  reaching 
the  plant.  The  sludge  is  freed  from  the  sedimentation  basin  automatically 
and  continuously  and  it  is  not  necessary  in  removing  the  digested  sludge 
to  deal  with  a  sedimentation  chamber  full  of  fresh  sewage,  perhaps  with 
more  or  less  scum  upon  it-  In  brief,  it  is  possible  to  obtain  sludge  which  in 
a  suitably  designed  tank  has  remained  in  the  digestion  chamber  for  a 
sufficient  number  of  months  to  become  so  thoroughly  rotted  out  that  it  is 
well  humified  and  quite  inodorous.  Furthermore,  a  sludge  can  be  obtained 
under  ordinary  circumstances  from  these  deep  tanks  such  that  its  removal 
and  its  separation  from  water  is  much  easier  than  with  ordinary  septic  tank 
sludge.  The  deep  tanks  under  the  conditions  as  tested  for  some  three 
years  or  so  in  the  Emscher  district  of  Western  Germany  seem  to  be 
unusually  free  from  odor  as  compared  with  the  single-story  tanks  or  even 
two-story  tanks  in  which  some  sewage  constantly  passes  through  the  diges- 
tion chamber.  This  seems  to  be  due  to  a  number  of  factors,  among  which 
may  be  mentioned  the  greater  coefficient  for  the  absorption  of  gases  by 
liquids  under  a  greater  depth  and  pressure,  and  also  the  mixing  which 
seems  to  take  place.  This  mixing  seems  to  promote  the  absence  of  large 
bubbles  rising  vertically  so  as  to  make  their  escape  into  the  atmosphere 
at  the  surface.  Perhaps,  the  latter  is  also  due  in  part  to  the  additional 


434      SEWAGE   DISPOSAL   WITH   EESPECT    TO   OFFENSIVE   ODORS 

opportunity  afforded  for  combination  of  the  gases  with  the  liquid  in  the 
chamber. 

The  disadvantages  of  septicization  in  two-story  tanks  is  that  the  tanks 
are  more  expensive  and  difficult  to  build  than  one-story  tanks,  particularly 
if  the  lower  portions  are  to  be  built  in  rock,  ground  water  or  quicksand. 
The  scum  or  floating  matters  on  the  surface  of  the  liquid  in  the  sedimenta- 
tion chamber  require  frequent  and  careful  attention  to  guard  against  odor. 
Under  some  circumstances  this  may  be  true  of  the  scum  which  appears  on 
the  surface  of  the  gas  vents  connecting  with  the  digestion  chamber.  The 
sludge  cannot  be  removed  and  dried  in  thin  gravel  beds  in  an  advantageous 
way  during  the  severe  winter  weather  in  the  northern  climate,  and  hence 
it  is  necessary  under  some  conditions  to  build  digestion  chambers  that  are 
very  large.  The  process  does  not  prevent  sulphuretted  hydrogen  formation 
in  the  sludge,  but  with  good  management  it  seems  to  minimize  the  escape 
from  the  digestion  chamber  of  objectionable  gases  in  the  surrounding 
atmosphere. 

THE  BEST  TREATMENT  FOR  THE  EEMOVAL  OF  SUSPENDED  MATTER  AND 
THE  DISPOSAL  OF  SLUDGE  WITH  MINIMUM  OPPORTUNITY  FOR  OBJECT- 
TIONABLE  ODORS 

Taking  everything  into  account  it  may  be  said  that  the  tieatment  that 
is  most  suitable  and  available  to-day  to  secure  the  above  requirements  is 
that  of  the  two  story  tank  in  which  sedimentation  occurs  in  the  upper 
chamber  and  the  digestion  of  the  sludge  in  the  lower  compartment  with  no 
connection  between  the  two  for  transmitting  gases  or  other  products  from 
the  lower  to  the  upper.  In  the  opinion  of  the  writer  it  constitutes  the 
greatest  step  in  advance  that  has  been  taken  in  the  field  of  sewage  disposal 
during  the  past  five  years.  This  opinion  is  given  with  full  appreciation  of 
the  fact  that  the  process  is  one  that  requires  careful  management  and  that 
there  is  a  large  amount  of  work  to  be  done  by  the  chemist  and  bacteriologist 
in  adapting  it  so  as  to  work  to  best  advantage  under  a  wide  range  of 
differing  local  conditions. 

This  process  like  practically  all  others  is  not  a  "  cure-all "  for  various 
conditions  without  careful  management.  There  is  no  reason  to  believe  that 
slude  digestion  by  this  process  does  not  involve  sulphuretted  hydrogen  and 
all  other  malodorous  products.  Available  data  clearly  indicate  that  these 
products  are  formed.  The  problem  is  to  control  them  as  well  as  or  better 
than  they  have  been  controlled  in  the  several  score  of  plants  that  have 
worked  so  well  in  the  Emscher  district  in  Germany.  In  some  measure  the 


GEOEGE    W.    FULLEE,   >90  435 

Emscher  results  have  been  associated  in  the  minds  of  some  with  iron  com- 
pounds which  precipitate  sulphuretted  hydrogen  and  which  may  perhaps 
have  much  to  do  with  the  texture  and  condition  of  the  sludge,  as  regards 
its  rate  of  drying  on  strainers  of  coarse  sand  or  gravel-  It  may  be  also  that 
the  mixing  which  occurs  in  the  digestion  chamber  due  to  gas  ebullition  may 
be  of  much  benefit  and  that  this  may  be  controlled  under  some  circum- 
stances to  advantage  by  artificial  mixing  with  aid  of  water  introduced  under 
pressure  as  has  been  done  in  some  instances  in  the  Emscher  district. 

There  is  no  reason  why  the  artificial  application  of  iron  salts  should 
not  be  availed  of  in  well-managed  plants  if  needed.  With  this  done, 
a  large  share  of  the  difficulties  encountered  in  some  plants  could  be  over- 
come as  regards  the  objectionable  odors  encountered  from  time  to  time. 

FILTRATION  PROCESSES 

When  a  sewage  has  been  well  clarified  under  such  conditions  that  it  has 
been  kept  as  fresh  as  possible,  that  is,  with  bacterial  decomposition  on  an 
oxidizing  and  not  on  a  reducing  basis,  and  where  the  sludge  has  been  taken 
care  of  in  an  inodorous  way,  it  is  not  a  difficult  matter  to  filter  the  sewage 
by  one  of  several  different  methods  so  as  to  secure  a  non-putrescible  effluent 
of  good  appearance  without  objectionable  odors.  Reference  will  be  made 
briefly  to  these  filtration  methods,  as  follows : 

Intermittent  Sand  Filtration.  This  method  which  has  been  used 
generally  in  New  England  is  a  satisfactory  one  for  small  or  moderate  sized 
plants  where  the  filter  beds  may  be  economically  established.  This  means 
usually  that  their  applicability  depends  upon  finding  deposits  of  porous 
sand  conveniently  accessible.  When  such  sand  deposits  are  not  readily 
available,  as  is  true  outside  of  the  glacial  drift  formation,  coarse  grained 
filters  are  generally  more  applicable.  The .  intermittent  filters  will  give 
an  excellent  effluent  and  where  the  surfaces  are  not  allowed  to  become 
clogged  there  will  be  no  objectionable  odors,  although  there  are,  of  course, 
noticeable  odors  immediately  at  the  beds.  Objectionable  odors  are  coin- 
cident with  clogged  surfaces,  particularly  where  the  filter  material  is  fine 
and  where  the  sewage  stands  for  some  time  so  that  it  actually  putrefies  upon 
the  filter  bed.  One  of  the  reasons  why  in  the  northern  climates  inter- 
mittent filters  so  seldon  produce  a  nuisance  as  to  smell  is  that  they  carry 
their  load  much  more  readily  during  the  summer  than  during  the  winter 
months.  In  other  words,  rates  of  filtration  which  can  be  availed  of  during 
the  winter,  when  decomposition  takes  place  slowly  at  low  temperatures 
and  when  it  is  impossible  to  clean  the  filter  surfaces  for  weeks  at  a  time, 


436     SEWAGE  DISPOSAL  WITH  EESPECT   TO   OFFENSIVE   ODOES 

seldom  give  trouble  in  the  summer  when  frost  and  snow  are  absent  but 
when  bacterial  decomposition  is  most  active.  With  fairly  porous  material 
and  with  unsettled  sewage  good  results  should  follow  the  use  of  this  method 
where  the  sewage  of  not  more  than  600  people  per  acre  is  applied.  For 
short  periods  unsettled  sewage  in  larger  quantities  may  be  applied  par- 
ticularly if  the  material  is  fairly  coarse.  It  is  not  wise  to  figure  permanently 
upon  such  large  doses  that  clogging  arises  to  a  degree  that  makes  its  removal 
too  frequent  and  expensive.  Where  sewage  has  been  clarified  or  passed 
through  stone  filters,  rates  of  filtration  much  in  excess  of  those  above  indi- 
.cated  may  be  safely  used,  but  it  is  difficult  to  state  just  what  the  limit 
should  be  for  varying  local  conditions.  The  load  certainly  should  not  be 
such  as  to  cause  putrefaction  to  develop  with  its  attendant  bad  odors. 

Contact  Filters.  These  filters  will  operate  satisfactorily  in  beds  of  a 
depth  of  about  four  feet,  when  receiving  sewage  after  some  clarification  at 
the  rate  of  about  600,000  gallons  per  acre  daily.  Where  the  material  is 
fairly  fine  it  does  not  seem  feasible  to  increase  this  rate  much  with  clarified 
sewage.  The  reason  of  it  is  that  during  such  a  large  portion  of  the  time 
the  beds  have  no  air  in  their  pores.  The  rates  probably  could  be  increased 
by  keeping  the  applied  sewage  fresh  and  by  using  coarse  stone  that  drains 
quickly  and  also  by  commencing  drainage  operations  a  short  time  after  the 
pores  of  the  material  are  filled.  One  of  the  great  steps  in  advance  recently 
in  the  design  of  this  style  of  filter  is  to  fill  them  from  below  to  within  a 
few  inches  of  the  surface.  Thus  the  sewage  does  not  appear  while  it  is  in 
a  putrescible  condition.  This  method  also  has  the  advantage  of  eliminating 
surface  clogging  and  the  necessity  of  scraping  off  deposits  of  scum  which 
have  bad  odors  under  some  circumstances.  The  underfed  bed,  however, 
should  be  provided  with  a  false  bottom  beneath  the  filter  material  and 
should  be  drained  at  a  velocity  which  will  flush  out  solid  matters  which 
appear  on  the  filter  floor.  This  means  that  this  style  of  filter  possesses  to  a 
considerable  extent  the  unloading  feature  of  sprinkling  filters.  Under 
ordinary  circumstances  it  calls  for  a  final  settling  basin  in  which  the  coarse 
deposits  are  removed  before  the  final  effluent  enters  a  small  stream  or  is 
applied  to  a  high  rate  sand  filter. 

Sprinkling  Filters.  When  the  applied  sewage  is  fresh  as  is  the  case  at 
Eeading,  Pa.,  where  dissolved  oxygen  is  almost  never  absent  in  the  sewage 
that  reaches  the  filter  plant,  this  style  of  filter  rarely  gives  odors  that  ara 
noticeable  200  feet  away.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  applied  liquid  is  in  a 
putrefying  condition  the  sprinkling  of  the  influent  releases  the  various 
malodorous  products,  particularly  the  sulphur  compounds,  and  at  the  same 
time  there  is  a  smaller  percentage  of  saturation  of  atmospheric  oxygen  in 


GEORGE    W.    FULLER,   '90  437 

the  liquid  as  it  reaches  the  surface  of  the  filter.  Filters  of  this  type  sixl 
feet  deep  will  ordinarily  dispose  satisfactorily  of  the  sewage  of  some  20,000 
to  25,000  people  per  acre.  This  is  predicated  on  the  conditions  being  such 
that  the  atmospheric  oxygen  is  present  at  all  times  and  at  all  places  within 
the  pores  of  the  filter  bed.  The  filtering  material  should  not  be  too  fine  as 
otherwise  there  is  a  danger  at  intervals  of  surface  clogging  due  either  to 
suspended  matter  in  the  sewage  or  to  filamentous  vegetable  growths  or  both. 
The  size  of  the  material  most  generally  preferred  is  either  from  one  to  two 
inches  in  average  size,  or  from  one  and  one-half  to  two  and  one-half  inches. 
The  use  of  hypochlorite  of  lime  for  destroying  vegetable  growths  and  in 
promoting  the  self-cleansing  of  the  filter  makes  moderately  fine  material 
safer  than  it  was  generally  considered  to  be  a  few  years  ago.  Artificial 
aeration  of  stone  beds  such  as  was  studied  years  ago  at  Lawrence  and  New- 
port has  again  been  studied  in  Europe  with  the  conclusion  that  it  is  of 
benefit.  It  is  not  believed  by  the  writer  that  this  is  correct  in  principle, 
unless  it  provides  oxygen  at  some  place  where  it  would  otherwise  be  lacking 
at  times.  Ventilators  are  so  inexpensive,  however,  that  exception  can 
scarcely  be  made  to  their  trial. 

STERILIZATION  PROCESSES. 

Where  sewage  is  discharged  into  drinking  water  streams  or  bodies  of 
water  from  which  shell  fish  are  obtained,  it  is  possible  and  sometimes 
advisable  to  destroy  at  moderate  cost  the  vast  majority  of  disease  producing 
germs  in  the  sewage  by  applying  strong  oxidizing  chemicals  such  as  hypo- 
chlorite of  lime  or  soda.  This  treatment  scarcely  provides  absolute  steril- 
ization as  it  is  obviously  out  of  the  question  at  moderate  cost  to  destroy  by 
oxidation  the  thick  walled  spores  or  even  the  vegetative  bacterial  cells  that 
are  encased  in  particles  of  suspended  matter.  It  is  feasible,  however,  to 
destroy  more  than  ninety-nine  per  cent  of  the  vegetative  cells  which  respond 
to  ordinary  laboratory  methods  of  enumeration. 

Several  investigators  have  noted  that  when  sewages  or  sewage  effluents 
are  treated  with  a  sterilizing  chemical  the  liquid  will  not  putrefy  for  some 
time.  This  is  explained  in  a  large  measure  by  the  death  of  bacteria  which 
are  capable  of  decomposing  the  sewage  and  thus  setting  up  putrefaction 
after  available  oxygen  is  exhausted.  Even  when  such  samples  are  mixed 
with  surface  waters  of  good  quality  a  comparatively  long  period  may  elapse 
before  they  putrefy.  This  may  be  explained  in  part  by  an  excess  of  the 
sterilizing  chemical  which  may  destroy  the  bacteria  of  the  water  which  is 
mixed  with  the  treated  sewage  or  sewage  effluent.  It  may  also  be  explained 


438     SEWAGE  DISPOSAL  WITH  EESPECT   TO  OFFENSIVE   ODORS 

in  part  by  the  failure  of  the  diluting  water  to  contain  bacteria  which  readily 
bring  about  a  reducing  fermentation  or  putrefaction. 

It  is  not  to  be  inferred,  however,  that  sterilized  sewage  may  be  dis- 
charged with  impunity  into  small  water-courses,  particularly  if  there  is 
considerable  suspended  matter  in  the  treated  product.  It  would  be  only  a 
question  of  time  before  the  suspended  matter  would  deposit  and  form  sludge 
banks  in  which  bacterial  putrefaction  would  become  established.  It  is  also 
probable  that  sterilized  sewages  or  sewage  effluents  regardless  of  the 
suspended  matter  would  sooner  or  later  putrefy  in  its  flow  in  a  water- 
course by  mingling  with  surface  waters  containing  bacterial  flora  that 
would  set  up  putrefaction. 

Reflection  upon  the  comments  above  made  will  be  of  assistance  in 
understanding  the  practical  application  of  bacterial  processes  of  oxidation 
and  putrefaction  in  that  they  show  that  it  is  necessary  to  have  time,  bacteria 
and  oxygen  to  bring  about  an  oxidizing  fermentation ;  and,  further,  that  it 
is  necessary  to  have  the  right  kinds  of  bacteria,  the  necessary  amount  of 
time  and  absence  of  oxygen  to  bring  about  putrefaction.  Sewage  will  not 
putrefy  if  all  three  factors  are  not  provided  and  this  also  explains  why 
oxidation  even  of  crude  sewage  will  continue  for  an  abnormal  period  when 
the  oxygen  is  increased  by  aeration  and  thus  postpone  the  time  when 
putrefaction  arises. 

RESUME. 

The  purpose  of  this  paper  is  largely  to  outline  the  writer's  present 
understanding  of  the  scientific  status  of  oxidation  and  reduction  as  these 
reactions  occur  in  sewage  treatment.  This  has  been  done,  partly  with  a 
view  to  promoting  appreciation  of  the  subject  by  those  who  are  not 
specialists  in  this  field  and  partly  to  indicate  where  more  data  are  desired. 

As  to  the  practical  art  of  sewage  disposal  the  methods  now  available 
permit  much  more  satisfactory  results  to  be  obtained  than  was  the  case  a 
few  years  ago.  Those  causes,  which  from  time  to  time  in  exceptional  cases 
have  resulted  in  unsatisfactory  conditions,  with  objectionable  odors  now 
and  then  noticeable  at  some  distance  from  the  disposal  plant,  are  now  quite 
well  understood.  Consequently,  there  should  be  in  the  future  far  less  oppor- 
tunity than  at  present  to  cite  instances  where  modern  sewage  disposal 
works  with  good  management  fail  to  eliminate  nuisances  but  tend  to 
create  them. 


THE  FOOD  INSPECTION  CHEMIST  AND  HIS  WORK. 

By  HERMANN  C.  LYTHGOE,  '96, 
Chief  Analyst  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  of  Massachusetts. 

IT  has  been  my  good  fortune  to  have  been  connected  with  the  food 
inspection  department  of  the  Massachusetts  State  Board  for  nearly  fourteen 
years.  This  is  the  oldest  food  inspection  department  in  the  U.  S.  A., 
having  been  in  active  work  since  1882,  and  has  examined  over  200,000 
samples  of  milk,  food  and  drugs. 

Until  recently  the  demand  for  food  chemists  has  been  limited  and  but 
few  chemists  from  institutions  other  than  Technology  had  any  training  in 
the  fundamental  methods  of  food  analysis.  Since  the  passage  of  the  national 
food  law  four  years  ago  the  demand  for  such  men  has  increased  to  a  large 
extent  and  the  schools  and  colleges  are  now  giving  more  attention  to  thii 
subject  and  it  is  not  necessary  at  present  to  spend  a  year  in  training  an 
assistant  in  the  ordinary  routine  work. 

The  food  inspection  chemist  is  called  upon  to  make  examinations  of 
various  food  products  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  whether  or  not  the 
sale  of  such  food  violates  the  law,  and  furthermore  he  is  called  into  court 
to  defend  his  findings  in  cases  of  prosecution.  For  this  class  of  work  a 
comprehensive  knowledge  of  the  composition  of  all  classes  of  food  is 
requisite,  as  well  as  the  ability  to  express  scientific  facts  in  such  simple 
language  that  the  average  judge  and  the  average  jury  will  be  able  to  under- 
stand to  some  extent  the  character  of  the  substance  in  question.  In  this 
particular  phase  of  the  work  the  unscientific  nature  of  law  is  very  evident; 
thus,  for  example,  a  food  may  be  pure  in  New  Hampshire  and  adulterated 
in  Massachusetts,  or  a  change  in  the  size  of  letters  on  the  label  may  transfer 
a  substance  from  the  adulterated  to  the  pure  class.  A  further  example  of 
the  idiosyncracy  of  law  is  shown  in  the  decisions  made  upon  the  preserva- 
tive clause  of  the  Massachusetts  law.  This  clause  provides  that  a  sample  of 
food  is  adulterated  if  it  contains  any  added  antiseptic  except  cane  sugar 
and  certain  other  substances.  The  courts  have  held  that  this  clause  permits 
the  use  of  cane  sugar  as  an  adulterant,  and  it  may  be  used  to  any  extent 
whether  its  presence  as  a  preservative  is  necessary  or  not.  A  decision  as 

439 


440  THE    FOOD    INSPECTION    CHEMIST    AND    HIS    WOEK 

peculiar  as  this  has  been  given  in  the  United  States  courts  to  the  effect 
that  the  general  clauses  of  adulteration  do  not  apply  to  confectionery 
because  in  the  United  States  law  the  adulteration  of  confectionery  id 
described  in  a  special  clause.  We  are  told  by  lawyers  that  law  is  common 
sense  but  such  interpretations  as  these,  and  they  are  correct  legal  inter- 
pretations, make  the  law  ridiculous. 

The  examination  of  food  for  adulteration  is  complicated  because  the 
physical  and  chemical  constants  differ  to  a  more  or  less  extent  in  various 
samples  of  the  same  class  of  food,  and  it  is  difficult  in  many  instances  to; 
tell  whether  or  not  a  sample  is  pure.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  all  food 
substances  with  the  exception  of  cane  sugar  are  not  pure  in  a  chemical 
sense,  but  are  mixtures  of  different  substances  in  more  or  less  varying  pro- 
portions. Under  these  circumstances  the  chemist  working  for  a  firm  or 
corporation  which  is  buying  food  material  could  easily  return  all  food  of 
a  suspicious  nature,  but  the  municipal  or  State  chemist  must  show  beyond 
a  reasonable  doubt  that  the  sample  in  question  is  actually  adulterated 
within  the  meaning  of  the  law. 

The  State  or  municipal  chemist  is  further  handicapped  by  reason  of 
the  fact  that  he  is  forced  to  give  his  methods  of  analysis  in  court.  I  per- 
sonally believe  that  this  should  be  so,  and  think  that  no  good  can  result  by 
trying  to  conceal  anything  in  the  way  of  new  methods,  but  the  publication 
of  these  methods  gives  the  food  adulterators  the  opportunity  of  mixing  up 
adulterated  food  which  will  give  reactions  within  those  given  by  normal 
food,  and  they  are  not  slow  to  take  advantage  of  it  when  possible.  On 
account  of  the  variability  in  the  composition  of  food  the  testimony  of  the 
food  analyst  in  court  may  be  divided  into  two  classes,  namely,  a  statement 
of  facts  and  expert  testimony.  The  difference  between  these  two  lines  of 
testimony  may  be  explained  in  the  examination  of  oils.  There  are  but 
three  of  the  edible  vegetable  oils  which  can  be  absolutely  identified,  cotton- 
seed oil,  sesame  oil  and  peanut  oil.  If  either  of  these  oils  have  been  mixed 
with  olive  oil  in  sufficient  quantity  to  give  the  characteristic  reaction  the 
presence  of  the  oil  can  be  stated  with  certainty;  if,  however,  some  other 
oil  is  used  as  an  adulterant  its  presence  can  be  made  known  only  by  show- 
ing abnormal  chemical  and  physical  constants  which  can  be  explained  only 
by  a  mixture  of  the  oils  in  question.  The  nature  of  the  testimony  in  the 
latter  instance  can  be  characterized  as  expert  testimony. 

The  food  chemist  is  called  upon  for  more  or  less  research,  depending 
upon  the  character  and  extent  of  the  work  he  is  undertaking.  Modern  food 
chemistry  is  a  new  branch  of  our  science  and  new  problems  which  demand 
t}ie  attention  of  the  investigator  are  arising  daily.  These  investigations 


HERMANN   C.    LYTHGOE,   >96  441 

will  be  made  in  the  future  as  in  the  past  in  the  course  of  the  daily  routine, 
for  the  need  of  the  research  is  noted  largely  when  abnormalities  are  dis- 
covered by  the  persons  engaged  in  the  chemical  examination  of  food. 
.Research  in  food  chemistry  has  been  along  the  lines  described  above  as  a 
result  of  which  our  methods  are  applicable  to  our  present  line  of  work. 
Formerly  pasteurized  milk  was  considered  superior  to  raw  milk,  and  at 
present  we  have  methods  for  the  detection  of  raw  milk  in  cooked  milk,  but 
no  tests  for  cooked  milk  in  raw  milk.  The  value  of  raw  milk  as  a  food  over 
pasteurized  milk  is  at  present  under  debate  and  we  now  need  methods  to 
distinguish  between  these  two  substances  and  some  day  we  shall  have  them. 
The  chemistry  of  the  decomposition  of  food  has  been  studied  but  little  and 
is  worthy  of  the  attention  of  more  of  our  investigators.  The  United  States 
government  has  recently  lost  a  case  where  they  relied  upon  bacteriological 
work  to  show  decomposition.  Some  of  the  most  prominent  bacteriologists 
of  the  country  testified  for  the  defense  in  effect  that  large  numbers  of 
bacteria  in  the  variety  of  food  in  question,  were  no  indication  of  decom- 
position. This  field  of  investigation  is  most  certainly  one  for  chemists, 
the  decomposition  products  are  chemical  products,  they  must  be  found  by 
chemical  means,  and  when  found  we  do  not  care  by  what  variety  of  bacterial 
decomposition  they  were  produced. 

The  field  of  the  food  chemist  is  constantly  increasing  and  more  men 
are  being  employed  in  the  State  and  municipal  laboratories,  in  the  food 
factories  and  in  the  commercial  laboratories.  The  food  analyst  should  be 
fundamentally  a  thoroughly  trained  chemist,  well  versed  in  analytical, 
organic  and  physical  chemistry  with  a  comprehensive  knowledge  of  bac- 
teriology and  of  the  science  of  nutrition,  and  should  be  a  skilled  micro- 
scopist  in  the  field  of  vegetable  histology. 


FACTORY  SANITATION  AND  EFFICIENCY 

By  C.-E.  A.  WINSLOW,  '98, 

Associate  Professor  of  Biology,  College  of  the  City  of  New  York,  and  Curator  of 
Public  Health,  American  Museum  of  Natural  History,  New  York  City;  Some- 
time Assistant  Professor  of  Sanitary  Biology  and  Biologist-in-Charge  of  tne 
Sewage  Experiment  Station,  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology. 

It  may  fairly  be  maintained  that  in  most  industries  the  largest  element 
invested  is  what  may  be  called  life  capital.  For  example,  in  the  cotton 
industry  in  1905  there  was  invested  a  capital  of  613  million  dollars,  while 
the  pay-roll  amounted  to  ninety-six  millions  a  year.  Capitalized  at  5  per 
cent,  this  pay-roll  would  correspond  to  an  investment  of  1920  million  dol- 
lars in  the  form  of  the  hands  and  brains  of  the  workers.  The  calculation  is 
perhaps  a  fanciful  one,  but  it  illustrates  the  fundamental  fact  that  the 
human  element  in  industry  is  of  large  practical  importance.  Particularly 
in  regions  like  New  England  where  there  is  no  wealth  of  natural  resources, 
prosperity  depends  on  a  skilled '  and  intelligent  operative  class.  Such  a 
class  Massachusetts  has  had  in  the  past  and  the  present  interest  in  industrial 
education  testifies  to  the  conviction  that  the  efficiency  of  the  operative  must 
be  improved  to  the  highest  possible  degree. 

Once  the  operative  is  trained  and  at  work  it  is  generally  assumed  that 
the  results  obtained  will  depend  only  on  his  intrinsic  qualities  of  intel- 
ligence and  skill.  The  effect  of  the  environment  upon  him  is  commonly 
ignored;  but  its  practical  importance  is  very  great.  In  industries  where 
it  has  been  shown  that  the  machine  which  makes  a  given  fabric  requires 
certain  conditions  of  temperature  and  moisture  for  its  successful  operation 
these  conditions  are  maintained  with  exemplary  care.  In  every  factory, 
however,  there  is  another  type  of  machine,  the  living  machine,  which  is 
extraordinarily  responsive  to  slight  changes  in  the  conditions  which  sur- 
round it.  These  conditions,  in  this  relation,  we  habitually  neglect. 

I  am  not  dealng  now  with  the  sociological  and  humanitarian  aspects 
of  the  case.    I  am  quite  frankly  and  coldly,  for  the  moment,  treating  the 
operative  as  a  factor  in  production  whose  efficiency  should  be  raised  to  the , 
highest  pitch,  for  his  own  sake,  for  that  of  his  employer  and  for  the  welfare 
of  the  community  at  large. 

The  intimate  relation  between  the  conditions  which  surround  the  living 
machine  and  its  efficiency  is  matter  of  common  experience  with  us  all. 

442 


C.-E.    A.   WINSLOW,   >d8  443 

Contrast  your  feelings  and  your  effectiveness  on  a  close,  hot,  muggy  day 
in  August  and  on  a  cool,  brisk,  bright  October  morning.  Many  a  factory 
operative  is  kept  at  the  August  level  by  an  August  atmosphere  all  through 
the  winter  months.  He  works  listlessly,  he  half  accomplishes  his  task,  he 
breaks  and  wastes  the  property  and  the  material  entrusted  to  his  care.  If 
he  works  by  the  day  the  loss  to  the  employer  is  direct;  if  he  works  by  the 
piece  the  burden  of  interest  on  extra  machinery  has  just  as  truly  to  be 
borne.  At  the  close  of  the  day  the  operative  passes  from  on  overcrowded, 
overheated  workroom  into  the  chill  night  air.  His  vitality  lowered  by  the 
atmosphere  in  which  he  has  lived,  he  falls  a  prey  to  minor  illness,  cold  and 
grip  and  the  disturbing  effort  of  absences  is  added  to  inefficiency.  Back  of 
it  all  lurks  tuberculosis,  the  great  social  and  industrial  disease  which  lays  its 
heavy  death  tax  upon  the  whole  community  after  the  industry  has  borne  its 
more  direct  penalty  of  subnormal  vitality  and  actual  illness. 

The  remedy  for  all  this  is  not  simply  ventilation  in  the  ordinary  sense 
in  which  we  have  come  to  understand  the  term.  Mr.  E.  "W.  Gilbert  of  the 
Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology  begins  a  suggestive  paper  on  "  The 
Economics  of  Factory  Ventilation"  in  The  Engineering  Magazine  for 
December  last  as  follows :  "  Webster's  definition  of  the  word  ventilation  is 
;  to  air '  or  '  to  replace  foul  air  by  fresh/  In  actual  practice,  however, 
ventilation  should  mean  more  than  this.  It  should  mean  the  conditioning 
of  the  air  of  any  enclosed  space  to  the  best  requirements  of  the  occupants 
of  that  space."  Conditioning  of  the  air  so  that  the  human  machine  may 
work  under  the  most  favorable  conditions, — this  is  one  of  the  chief  elements 
of  industrial  efficiency  as  it  is  of  individual  health  and  happiness. 

The  chief  factors  in  air  conditioning  for  the  living  machine,  the 
factors  which  in  most  cases  far  outweigh  all  others  put  together,  are  the 
temperature  and  humidity  of  the  air.  In  many  a  plant  after  spending 
money  for  an  elaborate  system  of  ventilation,  the  air  has  been  kept  too  hot 
or  too  dry  or  too  moist,  and  the  effect  on  comfort  and  efficiency  has  been 
worse  than  nil.  It  is  a  curious  instance  of  the  way  in  which  we  neglect  the 
obvious  practical  things  and  attend  to  remote  and  theoretical  ones,  that 
for  years  more  attention  has  been  bestowed  on  the  testing  of  air  for  carbon 
dioxide  which  was  supposed  to  indicate  some  mysterious  danger  than  on  the 
actual  concrete  effect  of  overheating.  Yet  heat,  and  particularly  heat  com- 
bined with  excessive  humidity,  is  the  one  condition  in  air  that  has  been 
proved  beyond  a  doubt  to  be  universally  a  cause  of  discomfort,  inefficiency 
and  disease.  Fliigge  and  his  pupils  in  Germany  and  Haldane  in  England  1 

*The  literature  on  this  subject  is  well  summarized  with  references  to 
original  sources  by  T.  R.  Crowder  in  "A  Study  of  the  Ventilation  of  Sleeping- 
Cars,"  Archives  of  Internal  Medicine,  VII.,  85. 


444  FACTOBY   SANITATION   AND    EFFICIENCY 

have  shown  that  when  the  temperature  rises  to  80°  with  moderate  humidity 
or  much  above  70°  with  high  humidity,  depression,  headache,  dizziness  and 
the  other  symptoms  associated  with  badly  ventilated  rooms  begin  to  mani- 
fest themselves.  At  78°  with  saturated  air  Haldane  found  that  the  tem- 
perature of  the  body  itself  began  to  rise.  The  wonderful  heat  regulating 
mechanism  which  enables  us  to  adjust  ourselves  to  our  environment  had 
broken  down  and  an  actual  state  of  fever  had  set  in.  Overheating  and 
excess  of  moisture  is  the  very  worst  condition  existing  in  the  atmosphere, 
and  the  very  commonest. 

The  importance  of  the  chemical  impurities  in  the  air  has  dwindled 
rapidly  with  the  investigations  of  recent  years.  The  common  index  of 
vitiation,  due  either  to  human  beings  or  to  lighting  and  heating  appli- 
ances, is  carbon  dioxide ;  but  carbon  dioxide  in  itself  has  no  harmful  effects 
in  tenfold  the  concentration  it  ever  reaches  in  ordinary  factory  air.  Nor  is 
there  any  reduction  of  oxygen  which  has  any  physiological  significance.  In 
the  Black  Hole  of  Calcutta  and  below  the  battened  down  hatches  of  the. 
ship  Londonderry  there  was  actual  suffocation  due  to  oxygen  starvation; 
but  this  can  never  occur  under  normal  conditions  of  habitation.  It  was  long 
believed  that  the  carbon  dioxide  was  an  index  of  some  subtle  and  mysterious 
"  crowd  poison  "  or  "  morbific  matter."  All  attempts  to  prove  the  existence 
of  such  poisons  have  incontinently  failed.  There  are  very  perceptible  odors 
in  an  ill-ventilated  room,  due  to  decomposing  organic  matter  on  the  bodies, 
in  the  mouths,  and  on  the  clothes  of  the  occupants.  These  odors  may  exert 
an  unfavorable  psychical  effect  upon  the  senstively  organized,  but  as  a  rule 
they  are  not  noticed  by  those  in  the  room  but  only  by  those  who  enter  it 
from  a  fresher  atmosphere.  Careful  laboratory  experiments  have  quite 
failed  to  demonstrate  any  unfavorable  effects  from  re-breathed  air  if  the 
surrounding  temperature  is  kept  at  a  proper  level.  In  exhaustive  experi- 
ment by  Benedict  and  Milner  (Bulletin  136,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations, 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture),  seventeen  different  subjects 
were  kept  for  periods  varying  from  two  hours  to  thirteen  days  in  a  small 
chamber  with  a  capacity  of  189  cubic  feet  in  which  the  air  was  changed 
only  slowly  while  the  temperature  was  kept  down  from  outside.  The 
amount  of  carbon  dioxide  was  usually  over  thirty-five  parts  (or  eight  to  nine 
times  the  normal)  and  during  the  day  when  the  subject  was  active  it  was 
over  100  parts  and  at  one  time  it  reached  240  parts.  Yet  there  was  no 
perceptible  injurious  effect. 

The  main  point  in  air  conditioning  is  then  the  maintenance  of  a  low 
temperature  and  of  a  humidity  not  too  excessive.  For  maximum  efficiency 
the  temperature  should  never  pass  70°  F.,  and  the  humidity  should  not  be 


C.-E.    A.    WINSLOW,   '98  445 

above  70  per  cent  of  saturation.  At  the  same  time  a  too  low  humidity 
should  also  be  avoided.  We  have  little  exact  information  upon  this  point, 
but  it  is  a  matter  of  common  knowledge  with  many  persons  that  very  dry 
air,  especially  at  70°  or  over,  is  excessively  stimulating  and  produces 
nervousness  and  discomfort.  It  would  probably  be  desirable  to  keep  the 
relative  humidity  between  60°  and  70°. 

Another  point  which  may  be  emphasized  in  the  light  of  current  opinion 
is  the  importance  of  "  perflation  "  or  the  flushing  out  of  a  room  at  intervals, 
with  vigorous  drafts  of  fresh  cool  air.  Where  there  are  no  air  currents  the 
hot  moist  vitiated  air  from  the  body  clings  round  us  like  an  "aerial 
blanket,"  as  Professor  Sedgwick  calls  it,  and  each  of  us  is  surrounded  by 
a  zone  of  concentrated  discomfort.  The  delightful  sensation  of  walking  or 
riding  against  a  wind  is  perhaps  largely  due  to  the  dispersion  of  this  foul 
envelope  and  it  is  important  that  a  fresh  blast  of  air  should  sometimes  blow 
over  the  body  in  order  to  produce  a  similar  effect.  The  same  process  will 
scatter  the  odors  which  have  been  noted  as  unpleasant  and  to  some  persons 
potentially  injurious.  The  principal  value  of  the  carbon  dioxide  test  to-day 
lies  in  the  fact  that  under  ordinary  conditions  high  carbon  dioxide  indicates 
that  there  are  no  air  currents  changing  the  atmosphere  about  the  bodies  of 
the  occupants. 

There  is  one  other  problem  of  atmospheric  pollution  to  which  special 
reference  should  be  made.  The  presence  of  noxious  fumes,  and  still  more 
the  presence  of  fine  inorganic  or  organic  dust,  in  the  air  constitutes  a  grave 
menace  to  health  in  many  processes  and  is  an  important  contributory  cause 
of  tuberculosis.  The  normal  body  has  its  "  fighting  edge  "  and  can  protect 
itself  against  the  tubercle  bacillus  if  given  a  fair  chance ;  but  the  lung  tissue 
which  is  lacerated  by  sharp  particles  of  granite  or  steel  quickly  succumbs 
to  the  bacterial  invader.  In  dusty  trades  like  stone  cutting  and  cutlery 
working  and  emery  grinding,  75  per  cent  of  all  deaths  among  the  operatives 
are  often  due  to  tuberculosis,  against  25  per  cent  for  the  normal  adult  popu- 
lation. This  may  be  fairly  interpreted  as  meaning  that  the  actual  death 
rate  from  tuberculosis  in  these  trades  is  from  two  to  four  times  as  high  as 
in  a  corresponding  average  population ;  in  other  words,  three  or  four  or  five 
out  of  a  thousand  of  these  workers  are  sacrificed  every  year  to  the  conditions 
under  which  they  labor.  The  elimination  of  the  dust  by  special  hoods  and 
fans  is  imperative  in  such  industries  and  must  be  supplemented  in  extreme 
cases  by  the  compulsory  use  of  respirators. 

It  is  extraordinary  how  little  is  known  to-day  of  the  actual  conditions 
of  factory  air,  either  by  manufacturers  or  by  sanitarians.  So  far  as  I  am 
aware  the  New  York  Department  of  Labor  is  the  only  State  department 


446 


FACTOKY    SANITATION    AND    EFFICIENCY 


dealing  with  factory  inspection  which  collects  and  publishes  exact  data  in 
regard  to  the  quality  of  the  atmosphere  in  the  workshops.  If  the  conditions 
indicated  in  these  reports  by  Dr.  C.-T.  Graham  Eogers  are  typical,  and 
there  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  they  are,  for  the  smaller  industries  at  least, 
there  is  urgent  need  for  betterment.  The  table  below  shows  that  of  215 
workrooms  inspected  156  or  73  per.  cent  had  a  temperature  of  over  72°  and 
63  or  29  per  cent  exceeded  79°.  Relative  humidity  exceeded  70  per  cent 
in  39,  or  18  per  cent  of  the  workrooms.  In  tabulating  these  analyses  I 
have  excluded  all  case  where  the  outdoor  temperature  was  over  70°. 

TEMPERATURE  AND  HUMIDITY  IN  NEW  YORK  FACTORIES 
(Reports  of  the  Commissioner  of  Labor  for  1908,  1909  and  1910.) 


,..k                                 Industry. 

Number  of  Workrooms  with 
Temperature 

Number  with 
Relative 
Humidity 
Over 
70  per  cent. 

72°  or  less. 

73°  to  79°. 

80°  or  over. 

Printing  shops  

2 

9 
1 
33 

8 
0 
6 

25 
23 
20 

9 
4 

7 
5 

29 

il 

0 
5 

I 

3 
6 

f.2 
\ 

Clothing  shops  

Bakeries.  .  . 

Pearl  button  factories  . 

Cigarmaking  shops    . 

Laundries  

Miscellaneous  

Total  . 

59 

93 

63                 39 

In  the  report  on  the  sanitary  condition  of  factories  and  workshops  made 
by  the  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Health  in  1907,  is  the  following  com- 
ment upon  the  boot  and  shoe  industry : 

In  the  majority  of  factories  visited,  tlie  ventilation  was  found  to  be  poor,  and  in 
many  of  them  distinctly  bad.  Of  the  rooms  not  especiaUy  dusty,  102  were  badly 
ventilated  and  26  were  overcrowded.  In  the  rooms  in  which  large  amounts  of  dusts 
are  evolved,  the  number  of  machines  with  means  for  efficient  or  fairly  efficient  removal 
of  dust  was  found  to  be  1630;  the  number  either  inefficiently  equipped  or  devoid  of 
equipment  was  2769. 

Of  84  of  the  many  dusty  rooms  reported,  40  were  also  overcrowded,  35  were  dark, 
21  were  overheated,  and  18  were  overcrowded,  dark  and  overheated.  In  more  than 
one-third  of  the  factories  visited,  the  conditions  of  water-closets  were  not  commend- 
able; most  of  them  were  dark  and  dirty  to  very  dirty. 

There  is  plenty  of  evidence,  though  of  a  scattered  and  ill-digested  sort, 
that  the  elimination  of  such  conditions  as  these  brings  a  direct  return  in 
increased  efficiency  of  production.  The  classic  case  of  the  U.  S.  Pension 
Bureau  is  always  quoted  in  this  connection.  The  removal  of  the  offices  of 
the  department  from  scattered  and  poorly  ventilated  buildings  to  new  and 


C.-E.    A.    WINSLOW,   '98  447 

well-ventilated  quarters  reduced  the  number  of  days  of  absence  due  to  illness 
from  18,736,  in  the  neighborhood  of  which  figure  it  had  been  for  several 
successive  years,  to  10,114. 

In  an  investigation  of  my  own  of  conditions  in  the  operating  room  of 
the  New  England  Telephone  and  Telegraph  Company  at  Cambridge,  Mass., 
I  found  that  before  the  installation  of  a  ventilating  system,  4.9  per  cent  of 
the  force  (50-60  girls)  were  absent  during  the  winter  months  of  1906  and 
4.5  per  cent  in  1907.  The  ventilating  duct  which  was  put  in  was  a  simple 
one  and  cost  only  $75  to  install,  but  in  the  winter  of  1908  following  its 
introduction  the  absences  were  cut  down  to  1.9  per  cent  of  the  force 
employed,  without  any  other  change  in  conditions  or  personnel  so  far  as  I 
was  able  to  discover. 

The  vice-president  of  the  Manhattan  Trust  Company  of  New  York 
states  that  by  proper  ventilation  he  has  so  increased  the  efficiency  of  his 
clerical  force  that  he  has  been  able  to  reduce  the  number  of  employees 
four  per  cent. 

In  the  printing  establishment  of  Mr.  C.  J.  O'Brien,  in  New  York,  a 
ventilating  system  was  installed  because  of  the  insistence  of  the  State 
Department  of  Labor  that  the  law  be  complied  with,  the  order  having  been 
resisted  for  two  years.  After  the  system  had  been  in  use  a  year  the  pro- 
prietor stated  that  had  he  known  in  advance  of  the  results  to  be  obtained 
no  order  would  have  been  necessary  to  have  brought  about  the  installation. 
Whereas  formerly  the  men  had  left  work  on  busy  days  in  an  exhausted  con- 
dition and  sickness  was  common,  now  the  men  left  work  on  all  days  in  an 
entirely  different  condition,  and  sickness  had  been  very  much  reduced.  The 
errors  of  typesetting  and  time  required  for  making  corrections  were  greatly 
reduced. 

It  is  much  to  be  desired  that  this  problem  should  be  studied  by  careful 
quantitative  methods  as  a  definite  factor  in  the  profit  and  loss  account. 
The  National  Electric  Lamp  Association  is  approaching  the  question  of 
sanitary  conditions  in  this  manner,  comparing  in  detail  the  temperature 
and  humidity  of  its  workooms  with  the  hours  of  work,  the  pay  and  the 
efficiency  of  its  employees.'  Only  by  such  systematic  study  can  it  be  deter- 
mined how  much  factory  sanitation  is  really  worth  in  any  given  case.  The 
evidence  is  already  strong  enough,  however,  to  warrant  some  investigation. 
In  cases  where  preliminary  study  shows  its  value,  why  should  not  the  sani- 
tary inspection  of  a  factory  be  made  a  part  of  its  routine  operation  just  as 
supervison  of  its  mechanical  features  is  -a  part  of  its  organization  to-day? 
It  is  not  solely  or  chiefly  the  problems  of  ventilation  as  ordinarily  under- 
stood that  should  be  studied;  and  it  must  be  remembered  that  there  is 


448  FACTOBY    SANITATION    AND    EFFICIENCY 

never  anything  magical  in  a  "  ventilating  system."  "  Systems  "  are  as 
dangerous  in  sanitation  as  quackery  in  medicine.  The  problem  must  be 
approached  from  a  broad  biological  viewpoint,  and  should  include  all  the 
conditions  which  make  for  lowered  vitality.  Temperature  and  humidity 
come  first  and  foremost  and  dust  and  fumes  must  be  guarded  against  in 
certain  processes.  The  cleanliness  of  the  factory,  the  purity  of  drinking 
water,  the  quality  of  lighting,  the  sanitary  provisions  and  a  dozen  other 
points  will  suggest  themselves  to  the  skilled  investigator  when  on  the 
ground.  He  may  find  in  many  of  these  directions  economic  methods  by 
which  efficiency  can  be  promoted. 

The  consulting  factory  sanitarian  will  be  a  new  factor  in  industry,  but 
the  progress  of  industrial  economy  and  of  sanitary  science  unite  in  pointing 
to  the  need  for  such  an  expert. 


THE  WOBK  OF  THE  SANITARY  RESEARCH  LABORATORY  AND 
SEWAGE  EXPERIMENT  STATION  OF  THE  MASSA- 
CHUSETTS INSTITUTE  OF  TECHNOLOGY. 

By  EARLE  B.  PHELPS,  '99, 

Assistant  Professor  of  Research  in  Chemical  Biology  at  the  Massachusetts  Insti- 
tute of  Technology,  Boston. 

THE  Sanitary  Research.  Laboratory  and  Sewage  Experiment  Station 
was  established  in  1902  through  the  generosity  of  an  anonymous  friend 
who,  at  that  time,  offered  the  Institute  the  sum  of  $5,000  a  year  for  three 
years  for  the  special  study  of  sewage  disposal  and  allied  sanitary  subjects. 
The  specific  wishes  of  the  donor  were  expressed  as  follows : 

1.  For  keeping  up  with  the  investigations  of  the  best  men  in  all 
countries. 

2.  For  utilizing  this  knowledge  in  the  work  of  the  Institute. 

3.  For  original  experiment. 

4.  For  distributing  all  over  the  country  in  such  words  as  they  who  run 
may  read  the  results  of  the  work. 

5.  For  inciting  the  students  to  make  plain  and  simple  statements  of 
the  results  of  their  work. 

Despite  the  fact  that  much  larger  sums  of  money  were  being  spent 
elsewhere  along  similar  lines,  the  task  of  instituting  this  work  was  gladly 
undertaken,  for  it  was  recognized  at  once  that  the  opportunity  to  conduct 
experimental  work  of  this  kind  within  the  walls  of  an  educational  institu- 
tion was  not  only  unique,  but  presented  great  possibilities. 

The  staff  of  the  new  laboratory  was  organized  with  William  T.  Sedg- 
wick,  professor  of  biology,  as  director,  with  C.-E.  A.  Winslow,  instructor  in 
(later  assitant  professor  of)  sanitary  biology,  as  biologist-in-charge  and 
with  the  writer  as  research  chemist  and  bacteriologist,  devoting  his  entire 
time  to  the  actual  conduct  of  the  investigation. 

A  piece  of  property  with  buildings  suitable  for  the  experiment  station 
was  secured  at  the  corner  of  Massachusetts  Avenue  and  Albany  Street  on 
the  line  of  the  main  trunk  sewer  of  the  city  of  Boston.  Here  the  work 
of  construction  was  immediately  begun.  A  connection  was  made  with  the 

449 


450         THE   WORK  OF   THE   SANITARY   RESEARCH   LABORATORY 

nine-foot  trunk  sewer  passing  the  premises,  and  the  necessary  suction  pipe, 
screen  chamber,  pumps  and  piping  were  installed.  Upon  the  two  floors 
and  in  the  cellar  of  the  larger  of  the  buildings  suitable  tanks  were  installed 
for  the  conduct  of  the  series  of  investigations  that  had  been  planned. 
Chemical  and  bacteriological  laboratories  were  equipped  in  an  adjacent 
smaller  building.  In  Juty,  1903,  the  work  of  preparation  was  finally  com- 
pleted and  the  actual  investigations  were  begun. 

These  investigations  were  carried  on  continuously  at  the  Albany  Street 
station  until  July,  1909,  when  a  new  plant,  larger  and  in  many  ways  more 
satisfactory  than  the  old  one,  was  installed  on  city  property  near  the 
Dorchester  pumping  station.  Here  we  are  about  completing  our  second 
year's  work. 

The  organization  of  the  staff  as  outlined  also  remained  .unchanged 
until  the  summer  of  1910  when  Professor  Winslow  left  us  to  assume  very 
important  duties  elsewhere.  The  station  and  its  workers  will  long  feel 
the  loss  of  his  enthusiasm  and  faithful  service.  At  the  same  time  there  were 
added  to  our  staff  S.  C.  Prescott,  associate  professor  of  industrial  bac- 
teriology, Selskar  M.  Gunn,  instructor  in  biology,  and,  more  recently,  S.  C. 
Keith,  Jr.,  research  assistant  professor  in  bacteriology. 

During  the  eight  years  of  the  history  of  this  laboratory  part  of  the 
routine  work,  and  many  special  investigations  have  been  carried  on  by 
students  and  advanced  workers.  Aside  from  regular  students  who  have 
carried  on  thesis  work  as  a  requirement  for  graduation,  the  following  have 
from  time  to  time  assisted  in  the  conduct  of  the  work  in  the  capacity  of 
volunteer  investigators  or  of  paid  assistants :  Miss  A.  F.  Rogers,  Dr.  B.  G. 
Smith,  F.  W.  Farrel,  G.  B.  Spaulding,  G.  C.  Bunker,  G.  E.  Wilcomb,  W. 
T.  Carpenter,  J.  W.  Newlands,  F.  E.  Daniels,  W.  H.  Beers,  R.  C.  McRae, 
Leyland  Whipple,  A.  S.  Wiester,  and  George  T.  Palmer. 

The  earliest  work  of  the  station  was  along  the  lines  of  analytical  pro- 
cedure. The  chemical  analysis  of  sewage  had  been  modeled  closely  after  the 
analysis  of  water,  and,  although  discontent  had  been  expressed  and  the  gen- 
eral unsatisfactory  nature  of  many  of  the  current  methods  of  sewage 
analysis  was  a  matter  of  common  consent,  definite  suggestions  for  improve- 
ment were  lacking.  An  early  paper  (4)*  on  the  Determination  of  Free  and 
Albuminoid  Ammonia  was  later  followed  by  one  on  the  Kjeldahl  process 
(5).  The  recommendations  of  these  papers  to  substitute  the  organic  nitro- 
gen for  the  albuminoid  ammonia  determination  and  to  determine  the  free  • 
ammonia  by  direct  reading  have  been  accepted  quite  generally  and  were 
later  officially  endorsed  in  the  standard  methods  of  the  Laboratory  Section 
*  References  are  to  bibliography  at  the  end  of  this  paper. 


EAELE    B.    PHELPS,   '99  451 

of  the  American  Public  Health  Association.  A  second  paper  on  the 
Kjeldahl  method  (25)  presented  a  satisfactory  solution  of  the  difficult 
problem  of  the  direct  reading  of  the  Kjeldahl  digestate  and  did  much  to 
hasten  the  general  use  of  this  process.  The  next  contribution  to  this  phase 
of  the  problem  was  through  studies  of  the  methylene  blue  method  for  deter- 
mining putrescibility.  This  process  was  proposed  by  Spitta  and  Weldert, 
of  Berlin,  in  1906,  and  was  shortly  after  investigated  by  us.  Two  papers 
have  resulted,  the  earlier  one  (39)  having  been  a  study  of  the  method  itself 
to  determine  its  applicability  as  a  test,  and  the  second  (27)  a  more  theo- 
retical discussion  of  the  relation  between  the  results  of  the  methylene  blue 
test  and  the  actual  relative  stability.  This  gave  the  results  definite  quan- 
titative significance  and  has  formed  the  basis  for  a  general  adoption  of  the 
method. 

The  use  of  the  relative  stability  number  as  thus  defined  has  not  only 
become  quite  general  but  has  led  to  a  somewhat  modified  conception  of  the 
purposes  of  a  sewage  analysis.  The  newer  conception  is  taking  definite 
form  in  some  work  which  is  now  being  done  at  the  Sanitary  Research 
Laboratory  by  which  it  is  intended  to  establish  a  distinctly  new  basis  for 
sewage  chemistry.  Too  much  significance  has  hitherto  been  attached  to  the 
nitrogen  in  sewage.  Its  easy  determination  in  several  forms  and  our 
pictorial  conception  of  the  nitrogen  cycle  has  given  it  an  undeserved 
importance.  Our  present  conceptions  are  based  upon  oxygen  requirements. 
Relative  stability  is  one  phase  of  this.  When  the  complete  set  of  oxygen 
lelationships  shall  have  been  worked  out  we  believe  that  there  will  be 
found  a  more  satisfactory  relation  than  now  exists  between  anaylsis  and 
the  behavior  of  sewage  before  and  during  treatment.  A  basis  for  this  work 
was  laid  as  early  as  1905,  in  two  papers  on  interpretation  of  analysis  of 
sewage  (11)  and  of  effluents  (12). 

The  important  discoveries  of  the  value  of  copper  sulphate  in  the  treat- 
ment of  water,  first  announced  by  Moore  and  Kellerman,  made  the  rapid 
determination  of  small  amounts  of  copper  in  water  a  necessity,  and  an 
improved  electrolytic  method  for  doing  this  was  devised  in  1906  (16). 

Bacteriological  methods  have  also  been  investigated  and  a  new  method 
of  direct  enumeration  was  described  in  two  papers  in  1905  (2,  6). 

The  chief  task  of  the  station,  however,  has  been  the  study  of  Boston's 
sewage  and  of  means  for  its  economical  purification.  This  important  and, 
as  we  believe,  very  real  problem,  has  served  admirably  as  a  background  for 
these  investigations,  and  as  one  or  the  other  of  the  minor  problems  of 
sewage  purification  lias  been  attacked,  the  major  problem  has  never  been  lost 
sight  of.  During  the  first  two  years  it  was  roughly  blocked  out  by  a  general 


452       THE   WORK  OF   THE   SANITARY  RESEARCH   LABORATORY 

study  of  all  the  various  types  of  sewage  treatment  and  by  an  extensive  and 
critical  study  of  the  literature  of  sewage  disposal.  While  this  routine  work 
was  under  way,  a  most  thorough  detailed  study  of  the  chemistry  and  bac- 
teriology of  Boston  sewage  was  made,  all  of  which  was  reported  in  the  first 
volume  of  Contributions,  (1).  The  second  volume  appearing  in  1906  con- 
tained the  results  of  the  first  two  years'  study  on  the  major  problem,  (7). 
A  critical  historical  review  of  sewage  disposal  and  a  detailed  discussion  of 
the  results  of  the  treatment  of  Boston  sewage  by  the  various  known  processes 
was  here  presented.  This  paper  was  published  as  a  water  supply  paper  of 
the  United  States  Geological  Survey  and  was  given  wide  circulation.  It  was 
shown  definitely  what  results  would  follow  the  treatment  of  Boston's  sewage 
by  various  methods,  and  the  comparative  costs  of  those  various  treatments. 
It  was  evident  that  the  trickling  filter  was  by  far  the  most  economical  and 
the  type  best  adapted  to  the  local  situation. 

From  that  time  on  the  main  effort  has  been  toward  perfecting  the 
details  and  increasing  the  efficiency  of  the  trickling^  filter,  although  for 
purposes  of  comparison,  and  particularly  for  educational  purposes,  filters 
of  the  other  types  have  been  maintained  and  from  time  to  time  special 
investigations  made  upon  them.  The  earliest  of  these  was  a  detailed  study 
of  the  mode  of  action  of  the  contact  filter  (3)  and  much  was  done  toward 
settling  what  had  been  a  much  debated  question. 

Studies  made  upon  the  septic  tank  and  its  applicability  to  the  local 
problem  are  of  special  interest  at  the  present  time.  In  the  second  volume 
of  Contributions  it  was  shown  as  the  result  of  our  own  series  of  septic  tank 
experiments,  as  well  as  by  other  isolated  examples  which  we  brought 
together,  that  the  longer  periods  of  septic  action  were  undesirable  and  that 
on  the  whole  the  septic  process  had  not  wholly  justified  itself. 

This  preliminary  note  of  caution  was  developed  into  a  decided  word 
of  protest  two  years  later  when  it  was  reported  that  the  septic  tank  offered 
no  advantages  in  the  treatment  of  Boston  sewage  and  that  the  latter  could 
be  most  advantageously  treated  upon  trickling  filters  with  no  further  pre- 
liminary treatment  than  is  afforded  by  fine  screening.  Eecent  develop- 
ments in  septic  tank  practice  have  confirmed  this  general  conclusion. 

The  detailed  studies  of  the  trickling  filter  do  not  lend  themselves  well 
to  a  resume  of  this  kind.  The  effect  of  preliminary  treatment,  of  size  of 
stone,  depth  of  filter  and  rate,  upon  efficiency  of  purification  have  been  deter- 
mined. The  problems  of  distribution  were  early  recognized  to  be  vital  ones 
and  the  first  attempt  at  a  scientific  measurement  of  distribution  was  made 
at  the  Albany  Street  station.  A  somewhat  complicated  mathematical 
analysis  of  the  experimental  results  was  found  necessary  in  order  to  measure 


EARLE    B.    PHELPS,   '99  453 

the  evenness  of  distribution.  A  coefficient  of  distribution  was  finally 
developed.  This  mathematical  study  was  published  in  1906  (21)  and  has 
been  adopted  as  a  basis  for  calculating  similar  results  wherever  such  tests  are 
made.  It  is  now  to  be  found  in  text  books  both  here  and  abroad.  The 
second  paper  (22)  containing  the  actual  results  of  tests  was  a  distinct  con- 
tribution and  stimulated  work  of  the  same  character  in  many  quarters. 

The  definite  part  of  the  work  which  had  direct  reference  to  the  Boston 
problem  was  summarized  and  crystallized  in  a  paper  published  in  1907 
and  reprinted  in  the  fourth  volume  of  Contributions  in  1908,  (20).  Definite 
conclusions  and  recommendations  were  made  at  that  time  and  preliminary 
plans  and  estimates  of  the  cost  of  construction  and  operation  were  presented. 

Since  that  time  the  work  of  investigation  has  been  conducted  along 
more  detailed  lines,  although  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  further  informa- 
tion upon  the  trickling  filters,  the  outdoor  filters  were  maintained  in  full 
operation  and  routine  tests  were  made  upon  them  until  the  removal  of  the 
station. 

The  problems  of  disinfection  are  so  intimately  associated  with  those  of 
sewage  purification  that  they  were  naturally  investigated  in  the  course  of 
this  work.  The  first  of  this  kind  of  work  was  undertaken,  curiously,  witli 
a  view  to  studying  the  injurious  action  of  acid  wastes  upon  purification 
processes.  The  'result  was  a  paper  upon  the  toxic  effect  of  certain  acids 
upon  typhoid  and  colon  bacilli  (15)  which  was  not  only  of  immediate  prac- 
tical bearing  on  the  sewage  disposal  problem  but  was  a  distinct  contribution 
to  the  theory  of  disinfection.  The  proposed  use  of  copper  in  water  purifica- 
tion, already  referred  to,  led  to  a  series  of  studies  from  which,  in  addition 
to  the  paper  on  analytical  procedure  already  mentioned,  there  resulted  two 
papers,  both  published  in  volume  three,  upon  various  phases  of  this  prob- 
lem. The  first  (17)  was  upon  the  inhibiting  effect  of  certain  organic  sub- 
stances upon  the  germicidal  action  of  copper  sulphate,  and  the  second  (18) 
upon  the  storage  of  typhoid  infected  water  in  copper  canteens.  This  latter 
work  was  undertaken  in  behalf  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey  and 
the  expenses  of  investigation  were  borne  by  that  bureau.  In  1906  a  prelim- 
inary paper  on  disinfection  of  sewage  filter  effluents  appeared  in  the  Tech- 
nology Quarterly  and  later  in  volume  four  of  the  Contributions  (23). 

The  results  of  the  brief  studies  that  had  been  made  were  so  promising 
that  the  Geological  Survey  through  the  interest  of  Mr.  Marshall  0.  Leigh- 
ton,  chief  hydrographer,  undertook  to  pay  the  expenses  of  more  elaborate 
investigations.  The  final  result  appeared  in  1909  as  United  States  Geologi- 
cal Survey,  Water  Supply  paper  229,  and  was  reprinted  in  volume  five  (27). 
The  successful  outcome  of  this  work  has  probably  been  of  more  direct  and 


454       THE   WORK   OF   THE    SANITAEY   EESEAECH   LABOKATOEY 

material  .advantage-'  in  modem  sewage  disposal  practice  than  any  other 
single  piece  of  work  which  the  laboratory  has  performed.  We  were  event- 
ually able  to  say  that  the  possibilities  of  this  mode  of  treatment  had  never 
been  thoroughly  developed  in  the  past  and  that  sewage  could  be  rendered 
free  from  infectious  material  by  chemical  means  and  at  a  cost  which  is  not 
disproportionate  to  the  benefits  derived.  The  full  significance  of  these 
developments  in  connection  with  the  protection  of  water  supplies  from 
dangerous  pollution  must  be  obvious. 

Incidental  to  the  main  problem  of  sewage  disposal  many  special  prob- 
lems have  been  taken  up  from  time  to  time.  At  the  request  of  the  United 
States  Geological  Survey  investigations  of  certain  manufacturings  wastes 
were  made,  the  results  of  which  were  reported  in  two  survey  bulletins  and 
later  in  the  Contributions.  The  first  (24)  dealt  with  the  offensive  waste 
waters  of  the  strawboard  mills  of  the  Middle  West  and  a  satisfactory  remedy 
was  found.  The  second  (28)  dealt  with  the  much  more  difficult  problem  of 
the  waste  from,  sulphite  pulp  mills.  Although  this  work  was  without  imme- 
diate practical  outcome  a  distinct  contribution  to  the  chemistry  of  the  prob- 
lem was  made.  We  have  also  from  time  to  time  been  called  in  to  advise 
manufacturers  in  the  treatment  of  minor  wastes  and  have  at  times'  found  it 
possible  to  give  material  help. 

Probably  our  most  important  contribution  to  the  broader  problems  of 
public  health  has  been  Professor  Winslow's  work  on  sewer  air,  (26).  Com- 
ing as  it  did  at  a  time  when  there  was  a  conflict  of  opinion  in  the  minds 
of  those  best  qualified  to  judge,  this  paper,  by  its  scientific  method  and 
definite  conclusions,  laid  at  rest  forever  the  bugaboo  of  germs  in  sewer  air. 

Other  researches  in  applied  sanitary  bacteriology  are  reported  by  Pro- 
fessor Winslow  in  two  papers.  The  first  (33)  deals  with  the  possibility  of 
differentiating  the  intestinal  organisms  of  the  higher  animals  and  of  man, 
and  the  other  (34)  the  extent  of  the  bacterial  pollution  of  air  by  mouth 
spray. 

The  practical  results  of  all  these  researches  have  been  enhanced  by  the 
expressed  wishes  of  the  donor  that  the  results  of  our  work  shall  be  made  as 
fully  available  as  possible.  These  wishes  have  been  interpreted  to  mean  not 
only  that  the  scientific  results  themselves  be  presented  in  full,  but  that  a. 
broad  educational  policy  be  adopted  in  connection  with  them.  To  this  end 
addresses  and  semi-popular  presentations  upon  vital  sanitary  problems 
have  been  made  from  time  to  time  before  various  associations,  societies  and 
3 ay  bodies.  Some  of  these  addresses  will  be  found  in  Hie  volumes  of  Con- 
tributions; others  are  published  separately,  while  many  of  them  have  not 
been  published.  Such  questions  as  the  relation  of  education  to  hygiene 


EARLE    B.    PHELPS,    '99  455 

and  sanitation  (8),  the  responsibility  of  public  water  supplies  in  the  causa- 
tion of  typhoid  fever  (14),  and  the  fundamental  problems  of  the  prevention 
of  disease  (32),  have  been  competently  discussed  by  Professor  Sedgwick. 
From  Professor  Sedgwick's  pen  there  has  come  also  a  study  in  vital  statistics 
upon  the  decrease  of  mortality  from  diseases  other. than  typhoid  fever  follow- 
ing the  purification  of  polluted  water  supplies,  the  far  reaching  significance 
of  which  needs  no  comment  here  (31). 

In  rendering  an  account  of-  our  stewardship  some  attention  must  be 
paid  to  the  cost  of  the  studies  which  has  been  thus  hastily  enumerated.  And 
indeed  it  is  the  efficiency  item  with  which  we  are  most  gratified.  We  have 
received  all  told  for  this  work  up  to  the  beginning  of  the  present  year  about 
$45,000.  Columbus,  Ohio,  spent  about  $40,000  in  one  year's  investigations 
of  her  problem,  and  Baltimore,  Md.,  spent  somewhat  less.  When  the 
city  of  Boston  has  to  face  the  problem  of  sewage  disposal  there  will  be 
available  for  use  results  which  judged  by  their  cost  elsewhere  will  be  worth 
to  the  city  very  much  more  than  they  have  cost.  In  addition  to  this,  and 
in  the  world's  work  of  far  greater  importance,  this  station  has  been  a  work- 
ing part  of  an  educational  institution,  and  these  funds  have  been  doubly 
utilized^  for  men  have  been  trained  to  carry  on  in  many  places  the  work 
which  had  been  so  ably  begun  by  their  predecessors. 

Following  is  a  list  of  the  publications  of  the  laboratory: 

REPORTS    AND    PAPERS    FROM    THE    SANITARY    RESEARCH    LABORA- 
TORY   OF    SEWAGE    EXPERIMENT    STATION    OF    THE    MASSA- 
CHUSETTS   INSTITUTE    OF    TECHNOLOGY 

VOLUME  I,  1905 

The  papers  of  this  volume,  with  the  exception   of  number   4,   were  published 
originally  in  the  Journal  of  Infectious  Diseases,  Vol.  1,  Suppl.  1,  1905. 

1.  The   Chemical   and   Bacterial   Composition   of  the   Sewage   Discharged   into 
Boston  Harbor  from  the  South  Metropolitan  District.     C.-E.  A.  Winslow  and  E.  B. 
Phelps;  p.  175. 

2.  The  Number  of  Bacteria  in  Sewage  and  Sewage  Effluents  Determined  by 
Plating  upon  Different  Media  and  by  a  New  Method  of  Direct  Microscopic  Enumera- 
tion.    C.-E.  A.  Winslow;  p.  209 

3.  The  Mode  of  Action  of  the  Contact  Filter  in  Sewage  Purification.     E.  B. 
Phelps  and  F.  W.  Farrell;  p.  229 

4.  A  Critical  Study  of  the  Methods  in  Current  Use  for  the  Determination  of 
Free  and  Albuminoid  Ammonia  in  Sewage.     Jour.  Infect.  Dis.,  1903,  1;  p.  327. 

5.  The   Determination   of  the   Organic   Nitrogen  in   Sewage  by  the   Kjeldahl 
Process.     E.  B.  Phelps;    p.  269. 

6.  Tests   of  a   Method   for   the  Direct   Microscopic   Enumeration   of  Bacteria. 
C.-E.  A.  Winslow  and  G.  C.  Willcomb;  p.  287. 


456       THE   WORK  OF   THE   SANITARY  RESEARCH  LABORATORY 

VOLUME  II,  1906 

7.  Investigations  on  the  Purification  of  Boston  Sewage,  with  a  History  of  the 
Sewage  Disposal  Problem.     C.-E.  A.  Winslow  and  E.  B.  Phelps,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey, 
Water  Supply  Paper ;  p.  185. 

VOLUME  III,  1906 

8.  The  Readjustment  of  Education  and  Research  in  Hygiene  and  Sanitation. 
W.  T.  Sedgwick  (Proceedings  of  the  American  Public  Health  Association,  Volume 
XXXI,  1905  meeting)  ;  p.  115. 

9.  The  Scientific  Disposal  of  City  Sewage :    Historical  Development  and  Present 
Status  of  the  Problem.     C.-E.  A.  Winslow   (Technology  Quarterly,  Volume  XVIII, 
1905)  ;  p.  317. 

10.  Experiments  on  the  Purification  of  Boston  Sewage,  1903-1905.     C.-E.  A. 
Winslow  and  Earle  B.  Phelps  (Proceedings  of  the  American  Public  Health  Associa- 
tion, Volume  XXXI,  1905  Meeting) ;  p.  16. 

11.  The  Interpretation  of  a  Sewage  Analysis,  Earle  B.  Phelps    (Technology 
Quarterly,  Volume  XVIII,  1905) ;  p.  40. 

12.  The  Interpretation  of  an  Analysis  of  the  Effluent  from  a  Sewage  Filter. 
Earle  B.  Phelps  (Technology  Quarterly,  Volume  XVIII,  1905)  j  p.  123. 

13.  A  Winter  Visit  to  Some  Sewage-Disposal  Plants  in  Ohio,  Wisconsin  r,nd 
Illinois.     C.-E.  A.  Winslow.     Journal  of  the  Association  of  Engineering  Societies, 
Volume  XXXIV,  1905;  p.  335. 

14.  On  the  Present  Relative  Responsibilty  of  Public  Water  Supplies  and  Other 
Factors  for  the  Causation  of  Typhoid  Fever.    W.  T.  Sedgwick  and  C.-E.  A.  Winslow. 
Journal  of  the  New  England  Water-Works  Association,  Volume  XX,  1906;    p.  51. 

15.  The   Toxic   Effect   of  Certain   Acids  upon   Typhoid  and   Colon  Bacilli  in 
Relation  to  the  Degree  of  Their  Dissociation.    C.-E.  A.  Winslow  and  E.  E.  Lochridge. 
Biological   Studies  by  the   Pupils   of  William   Thompson   Sedgwick,   Boston,    1906; 
p.  258. 

16.  The   Determination   of   Small   Quantities   of   Copper   in   Water.      Earl   B. 
Phelps.     Journal  of  the  American  Chemical  Society,  Volume  XXVIII,  1906;  p.  368. 

17.  The  Inhibiting  Effect  of  Certain  Organic  Substances  upon  the  Germieidal 
Action  of  Copper  Sulphate.     Earle  B.  Phelps.     Biological  Studies  by  the  Pupils  of 
William  Thompson  Sedgwick,  Boston,  1906;    p.  283. 

18.  Experiments  on  the  Storage  of  Typhoid-Infected  Water  in  Copper  Canteens. 
Earle  B.  Phelps.     Proceedings  of  the  American  Public  Health  Association,  Volume 
XXXI,  1905  meeting;    p.  75. 

VOLUME  IV,  1908 
Second  Edition,  1909 

19.  Disposal  of  Sewage.     C.-E.  A.  Winslow  (Paper  read  at  the  Ninth  Annual 
School  for  Instruction  of  Health  Officers,  Burlington,  Vt.,  June  19,  1907.     Bulletin, 
Vermont  State  Board  of  Health,  Volume  VIII,  pp.  3-12.    September  1907). 

20.  Investigations  on  the  Purification  of  Boston  Sewage  in  Septic  Tanks  and 
Trickling  Filters.     1905-07.     C.-E.  A.  Winslow  and  Earle  B.  Phelps.      (Technology 
Quarterly,  Volume  XX  (1907),  pages  387-452.) 

21.  A  Method  for  Testing  and  Comparing  Sewage  Sprinklers.    Earle  B.  Phelps. 
(Engineering  News,   Volume  LVI    (1906),   pages  410-411.     Reprinted,    Technology 
Quarterly,  Volume  XX  (1907),  pp.  34-40.) 


EARLE   B.   PHELPS,  >99  457 

22.  Studies  of  Sewage  Distributors  for  Trickling  Filters.     C.-E.  A.  Winslow, 
Earle  B.  Phelps,  C.  F.  Story  and  H.  C.  McEae.     (Technology  Quarterly,  Volume  XX 
(1907),  pp.  325-374.) 

23.  The  Sterilization  of  Sewage  Filter  Effluents.    Earle  B.  Phelps  and  William 
T.  Carpenter.     (Technology  Quarterly,  Volume  XIX  (1906),  pp.  382-403.) 

24.  The    Prevention    of    Stream    Pollution   by    Strawboard   Waste.      Earle    B. 
Phelps.     (United  States  Geol.  Survey,  Water  Supply  and  Irrigation  Paper,  No.  189 
(Washington,    1906).     Reprinted,   Technology   Quarterly,   Volume   XX    (1907)",  pp. 
292-324.) 

25.  The  Determination  of  the  Organic  Nitrogen  in  Sewage  by  the  Kjeldahl 
Process:     II.    Studies  on  Direct  Nesslerization.     Leyland  Whipple.      (Technology 
Quarterly,  Volume  XX  (1907),  pp.  162-170.) 

VOLUME  V,  1909 

26.  The  Sewer  Gas  Question;  with  Special  Reference  to  the  Sanitary  Signifi- 
cance of  Bacteria  in  the  Air  of  Drains  and  Sewers.    C.-E.  A.  Winslow.     (Report  made 
to  the  Sanitary  Committee  of  the  National  Association  of  Master  Plumbers  of  the 
United    States,    and    reprinted    from    the    Report    of    the    Sanitary    Committee    for 
1907-8-9.) 

27.  The  Disinfection  of  Sewage  and  Sewage  Filter  Effluents,  with  a  chapter  on 
the  Putrescibility  and   Stability  of   Sewage   Effluents.     Earle  B.   Phelps.      (United 
States  Geological  Survey,  Water  Supply  Paper  229,  Washington,   1909.) 

28.  The   Pollution    of    Streams   by    Sulphite   Pulp    Waste.      Earle    B.    Phelps. 
(United  States  Geological  Survey,  Water  Supply  Paper  226,  Washington,  1909.) 

29.  Corrosion  of  Water  Pipes.    Earle  B.  Phelps.     (Report  made  to  the  Sanitary 
Committee  of  the  National  Association  of  Master  Plumbers  of  the  United  States, 
and  Reprinted  from  the  Report  of  the  Sanitary  Committee  for  1907-8-9.) 

30.  An  Investigation  of  the  Sanitary  Condition  of  the  Gowanus  Canal,  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y.     C.  F.  Breitzke.     (Technology  Quarterly,  XXT,  pp.  243-280.) 

VOLUME  VI,  1910 

31.  On  the  Mills-Reincke  Phenomenon  and  Hazen's   Theorem  Concerning  the 
Decrease  in  Mortality  from  Diseases  other  than  Typhoid  Fever  Following  the  Puri- 
fication of  Polluted  Water  Supplies.     William  T.  Sedgwick  and  J.  Scott  MacNutt. 
(Jour.  Inf.  Dis.,  Volume  VII,  1910,  pp.  489-564.) 

32.  The   Foundations   of   Prevention.     William   T.    Sedgwick.      (Trans.    First 
Conference  on  Prevention  of  Infant  Mortality,  New  Haven,  Conn.,  1910.) 

33.  A  Comparative  Study  of  Intestinal  Streptococci  from  the  Horse,  the  Cow, 
and  Man.     C.-E.  A.  Winslow  and  G.  T.  Palmer.     (Jour.  Infectious  Diseases,  Volume 
VII,  No.  1  (1910),  pp.  1-16.) 

34.  An  Investigation  of  the  Extent  of  the  Bacterial  Pollution  of  the  Atmos- 
phere by  Mouth  Spray.     C.-E.  A.  Winslow  and  E.  A.  Robinson.     (Jour.  Infectious 
Diseases,  Volume  VII  (1910),  pp.  17-37.) 

35.  The  Disinfection  of  Water  and  Sewage.     Earle  B.  Phelps.     (Proc.  EngVs 
Club  of  Philadelphia,  Volume  XXVII,  No.  21,  1910.) 

36.  Disinfection  of  Sewage  and  Sewage  Effluents.     Earle  B.  Phelps.     (Trans. 
Am.  Soc.  Munic.  Improvements,  1910.) 


458       THE   WORK   OF    THE    SANITARY   RESEARCH   LABORATORY 

37.  Water  Pollution  and  Water  Purification  at  Jersey  City,  N.  J.     C.-E.   A. 
Winslow.     (Jour.  Western  Soc.  Eng.,  Volume  XV,  1910.) 

38.  The  Field  for  Water  Disinfection  from  a  Sanitary  Standpoint.     C.-E.  A. 
Winslow.     (Proc.  Second  Ann.  Meeting  Illinois  Water  Supply  Association,  1910.) 

NOT    REPRINTED 

39.  On  the  Use  of  Methylene  Blue  in  Testing  Sewage  Effluents.     Earle  B. 
Phelps  and  C.-E.  A.  Winslow,  Jour.  Inf.  Dis.,  Suppl.  No.  3,  1907,  p.  1. 

40.  Why  Dirt  is  Dangerous.    W.  T.  Sedgwick. 

41.  Why  Dirty  Water  is  Dangerous.    W.  T.  Sedgwick. 

42.  Why  Dirty  Milk  is  Dangerous.    W.  T.  Sedgwick. 


BACTERIA   AND    DECOMPOSITION. 

By  SIMEON  C.  KEITH,  Jr.,  '93, 

Assistant  Professor  of  Research  in  Bacteriology  at  the  Massachusetts  Institute 

of  Technology. 

THE  term  decomposition  has  been  handed  down  to  us  from  the 
alchemists.  It  was  a  term  used  by  them  to  describe  a  process  which 
resulted  in  the  production  of  one  substance  through  the  destruction  of 
the  composition  of  another  substance.  The  term  was  applied  to  certain 
changes  in  mineral  substances,  as  well  as  to  changes  in  organic  bodies, 
and  it  was  generally  believed  that  the  decomposition  of  organic  bodies  was 
due  to  their  coming  in  contact  with  air,  to  a  process  of  oxidation.  Liebig 
to  the  day  of  his  death,  held  to  the  purely  chemical,  or  mechanico-chemical, 
theory  of  decomposition  and.  fermentation  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  it 
iiad  been  demonstrated  that  something  in  the  air  rather  than  the  air  itself 
caused  these  changes. 

Leuwhenhoek,  in  1680,  found  by  the  aid  of  his  newly  invented  com- 
pound microscope  that  certain  organisms  which  he  called  Thierchen  (ani- 
malcules), existed  in  decomposing  fluids  such  as  hay  infusions.  Little 
advance  on  Leuwhenhoek's  studies  was  made  for  nearly  one  hundred  year*, 
or  until  in  1778  when  von  Grliechen  attempted  to  classify  these  organisms. 
In  1796,  von  Mtiller  continued  the  work  of  von  (rliechen  and  to  him  we 
owe  the  present  names  of  some  of  the  bacteria.  It  was  not,  however,  until 
the  advent  of  a  practical  compound  microscope  that  any  great  advance  in 
bacteriology  was  made,  and  the  years  1835  to  1840  may  be  said  to  mark 
the  time  during  which  the  foundation  was  laid  for  our  modern  science  of 
bacteriology.  During  this  period  Schwann  and  Schlieden,  and  later 
Schultz  and  Turpin  made  classic  experiments  partial!}'  explaining  fermen- 
tation, which  is  a  kind  of  decomposition,  and  laid  down  the  axiom  i(  no 
decomposition,  no  fermentation  without  the  plrysiological  action  of  vegeta- 
tion." In  1850  Dr.  Burnett  of  Boston  gave  us  the  idea  that  bacteria  were 
plants,  and  in  1857  Louis  Pasteur,  then  a  chemist  studying  the  lactic  fer- 
mentation, saw  with  his  microscope  certain  bodies  in  fermenting  liquids 
to  which  he  ascribed  the  cause  of  the  fermentation.  Bacterial  decomposi- 
tion from  that  time  forward  has  been  regarded  as  consisting  of  the 

459 


460  BACTERIA   AND    DECOMPOSITION 

destruction  of  the  composition  of  an  organic  body  through  the  agency  of 
bacteria. 

Now  we  know  that  all  fermentations  and  putrefactions  are  due  to 
bacterial  growth,  but  we  must  not  for  a  moment  fall  into  the  error  of 
believing  that  all  bacterial  growth  results  in  fermentation  or  putrefaction; 
because  more  recent  studies  of  the  bacteria  concerned  in  these  processes 
have  narrowed  down  the  particular  kinds  of  bacteria  that  will  actually 
produce  these  changes.  It  is  evident  that  bacteria  must  be  as  differently 
organized  as  are  human  beings:  for  instance,  using  an  analogy,  some 
human  beings  vegetate,  as  it  were,  eat  only  to  maintain  their  existence, 
while  others  who  eat  the  same  kinds  of  foods,  do  a  large  amount  of  useful 
work.  Then  again,  we  have  a  class  of  undesirable  citizens  who  are  charac- 
terized by  their  bad  works.  The  influence  of  the  environment  on  the 
kinds  of  bacteria  that  may  be  said  sometimes  to  produce  fermentative  or 
putrefactive  changes  in  any  particular  material  is  of  the  greatest  impor- 
tance. It  has  been  shown  by  Dr.  Kendall,  one  of  our  graduates,  that 
bacillus  coli  communis  when  grown  in  ordinary  peptone  meat  bouillon 
produces  certain  very  definite  decomposition  products  which  might  almost 
be  called  putrefactive  in  character,  whereas  if  the  same  organism  is  grown 
in  the  same  solution  to  which  a  little  sugar  has  been  added,  the  sugar  is 
decomposed,  but  the  putrefactive  products  are  entirely  wanting,  so  that 
in  some  cases  it  appears  that  the  same  organism  may  produce  totally 
different  end  products,  when  the  character  of  the  medium  in  which  it 
grows  is. slightly  changed. 

The  work  of  Herter  and  Rettger  has  thrown  a  great  deal  of  light  on 
what  organisms  actually  produce  putrefaction.  They  found  that  many 
of  the  organisms  that  we  have  believed  to  cause  putrefaction  were  not  the 
real  cause;  that  in  many  instances,  while  they  seemed  to  be  the  cause  of 
such  putrefaction,  further  investigations  showed  that  there  were  other 
organisms  present  which  actually  did  the  work  and,  at  least  in  the  case  of 
the  natural  proteids,  that  putrefaction  was  due  solely  to  the  development 
of  putrefactive  anaerobes  such  as  bacillus  putrificus.  There  are  some  who 
believe  that  bacillus  coli  communis  can  produce  putrefactive  changes  in 
food  products,  but  it  is  extremely  doubtful  if  this  is  really  the  fact. 

Having  recently  had  occasion  to  make  several  experiments  along  this 
line,  and  especially  in  connection  with  eggs,  I  have  found  that  bacillus 
coli  communis  can  be  artificially  introduced  into  the  yolk  of  fresh  eggs 
and  grown  there  to  50,000,000  or  more  per  cubic  centimeter  without 
producing  any  perceptible  change  whatever  in  the  egg  substance,  and  even 
when  they  were  cultivated  to  as  high  a  number  as  250,000,000  per  cubic 


SIMEON    C.    KEITH,    JK,,    '93  461 

centimeter  the  egg  was  not  at  all  disagreeable  when  cooked,  although  before 
cooking  a  slight  sourish  odor  was  noticeable. 

Bacteriology  as  applied  industrially  deals  almost  wholly  with  decom- 
position in  some  form,  for  example  with  the  ripening,  or  souring,  of  cream 
for  butter,  the  manufacture  of  cheeses  of  various  types,  the  production  of 
lactic  acid  from  starchy  material,  all  of  which  may  be  controlled  through  the 
introduction  of  various  types  of  bacteria  which  have  been  carefully  selected 
to  do  this  particular  work  with  the  best  results.  I  could  go  on  at  length 
to  describe  many  such  applications  as  the  use  of  selected  yeasts  for  wines, 
beers  and  distilled  liquors.  Of  course,  there  are  more  instances  where, 
the  decompositions  are  allowed  to  progress  in  a  more  or  less  hit  or  miss 
fashion,  but  which  ultimately  will  undoubtedly  be  controlled  in  a  similar 
way.  Among  these  are  the  production  of  vinegar,  the  tanning  of  hides  for 
leather,  the  manufacture  of  sauer  kraut,  and  the  septic  tank  in  sewage 
disposal. 

In  closing,  I  may  mention  one  instance  in  which  bacteriology,  to  my 
mind,  has  not  been  properly  applied,  and  that  is  the  realm  of  foods,  to  the 
purpose  of  determining  whether  a  food  is,  or  is  not,  decomposed.  The  Fed- 
eral Pure  Food  Law  contains  a  clause  which  reads  as  follows :  "  Foods  shall 
be  deemed  adulterated  if  they  are  filthy,  decomposed  or  putrid  in  whole  or 
in  part/'  Within  the  past  two  or  three  years  the  Bureau  of  Chemistry  at 
Washington,  has  been  applying  a  bacteriological  test  and  holding  a  tenta- 
tive standard  of  mere  numbers  of  bacteria,  without  any  distinction  as  to 
kinds  other  than  bacillus  coli,  as  a  basis  for  seizing  and  destroying  food 
products  as  being  either  filthy,  decomposed  or  putrid  under  this  clause  of 
this  act.  It  is  only  recently  that  there  has  been  any  check  to  the  carry- 
ing out  of  this  policy,  absurd  as  it  is  to  any  thinking  biologist.  This  was 
in  the  Trenton  egg  case,  when  the  Government  sought  to  condemn  as 
decomposed  some  ten  tons  of  frozen  egg  product  mainly  because  the  bac- 
terial count  exceeded  an  arbitrary  standard  which  was  set  up  by  one 
analyst  in  the  Department  of  Chemistry  at  Washington.  Professors  Sedg- 
wick,  Winslow,  Jordan  and  myself,  as  bacteriologists,  helped  to  defend 
this  product  and  denied  the  alleged  fact  of  decomposition.  We  maintained 
that  no  such  standard  as  the  Government  had  adopted  meant  anything 
as  prima  faciae  evidence  that  this  egg  product  was  decomposed  in  the 
ordinary  sense  of  that  word  and  that  the  arbitrary  standard  was  not  a 
recognized  standard  by  bacteriologists  generally.  Fortunately  we  had 
associated  with  us  Prof.  Otto  Folin,  the  eminent  physiological  chemist  of 
the  Harvard  Medical  School,  who  showed  that  chemically  the  products  of 
decomposition  were  not  greater  in  this  egg  product  that  in  shell  eggs  regu- 


462  BACTERIA   AND   DECOMPOSITION 

larly  sold  on  the  market.  The  decision  it  is  needless  to  state  was  in  favor  of 
the  defendant  eggs,  although  I  may  add  that  while  numerous  complaints 
have  been  brought  by  the  Government  on  the  basis  of  mere  bacterial  count, 
as  proof  of  decomposition,  this  is  the  first  case  where  the  verdict  has  been 
for  the  claimant,  largely  as  I  believe  because  in  most  instances  the  foods 
have  not  been  defended  at  all. 


SECTION  F 
ARCHITECTURE 


LANDSCAPE  ARCHITECTURE:  A  DEFINITION  AND  A  BRIEF 
RESUME  OF  ITS  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 

By  STEPHEN  CHILD,  '88, 

Landscape  Architect  and  Consulting  Engineer,  Boston,  Mass.,  and 
Santa  Barbara,  Cal. 

THERE  is  at  the  present  time  much  apparent  misunderstanding  of  the 
terms  Landscape  Architecture  and  Landscape  Gardening.  It  is  not  un- 
usual to  hear  it  stated  that  "  this  calling  a  man  a  landscape  architect 
instead  of  a  landscape  gardener  is  merely  a  fad."  One  well-known  writer 
has  even  affirmed  that  "  the  men  most  deeply  engaged  in  the  art  have  not 
decided  what  to  call  it,"  and  that  it  is  suspected  that  "  the  present  fashion 
among  professional  brethren  of  calling  themselves  landscape  architects  is 
due  to  the  accidental  cause  that  architecture  sounds  bigger  than  gardening 
and  can  demand  a  better  fee,,  and  to  the  fact  that  the  architectural  style 
of  landscape  work  is  the  present  vogue  among  the  wealthy  clients." 

In  the  firs*  place,  the  term  is  not  a  "  recent  fad."  Frederick  Law 
Olmsted,  the  elder,  called  himself  a  landscape  architect  as  long  ago  as  in 
1856,  when  he  first  entered  upon  the  work  of  developing  Central  Park  in 
New  York  City;  and  continued  to  so  designate  himself  during  the  whole 
of  his  career.  He  appears  never  to  have  given  any  specific  reasons  fo'r 
the  adoption  of  his  title,  however,  but  we  may  be  perfectly  assured  that 
he  had  reasons,  and  most  excellent  ones. 

Fifty  years  a  ;o,  when  Mr.  Olmsted  began  the  practice  of  his  profession, 
there  was  beginni  ig  to  be  a  demand  in  this  country  for  men  to  do  a  certain 
line  of  work  tha  was  quite  different  from  that  previously  carried  on  by 
either  the  architect,  the  engineer,  or  the  gardener,  and  yet  work  that 
embodied  some  ol  the  principles  heretofore  utilized  by  each  of  them. 
That  great  tract  of  land,  now  known  as  Central  Park,  was  to  be  developed 
and  made  beautifu1  for  the  purpose  of  providing  "  for  a  form  of  recrea- 
tion to  be  obtained  only  through  the  influence  of  pleasing  natural  scenery 
upon  the  sensibilit  3S  of  those  quietly  contemplating  it."  It  was  a  new 
problem  for  this  c  untry,  and  indeed  for  any  country,  for  none  of  the 
present  great  parks  in  Europe  were  originally  created  as  such.  They  are 

465 


466  LANDSCAPE  AECHITECTUKE :    ITS  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

chiefly  the  result  of  developing  land  that  had  originally  been  set  aside  as 
hunting  forests  by  the  nobility  or  rulers  of  Europe. 

Mr.  Olmsted  saw  clearly  the  greatness  of  his  task  and  the  differentia- 
tion of  this  form  of  design  from  that  of  the  architect  or  engineer,  and 
certainly  from  the  work  of  the  gardener,  and  chose  to  call  it  landscape 
architecture,  and  himself  a  landscape  architect.  What  Mr.  Olmsted  un- 
doubtedly meant  when  he  adopted  the  title  was  that  he  was  aiming  to 
be  a  master  artisan, — the  primitive  meaning  of  architect, — in  matters 
pertaining  to  land  and  to  human  works  upon  it,  having  regard  both  to  the 
beauty  of  its  appearance  and  to  its  use.  In  a  very  real  sense  such  work 
covers  agriculture,  forestry,  gardening,  engineering,  and  the  elements  of 
architecture. 

Landscape  Architecture  has  been  defined  as  "a  group  of  activities 
including  horticulture,  architecture,  civil  engineering  and  agriculture. 

Humphrey  Repton,  a  great  English  authority,  says  that  in  order  to 
carry  out  this  line  of  work  one  must  possess  not  only  artistic  ability  and 
taste,  but  "a  complete  knowledge  of  surveying,  mechanics,  hydraulics, 
botany,  and  the  general  principles  of  architecture."  Humphrey  Repton 
was  a  cultivated  English  gentleman  of  great  refinement  and  good  taste. 
He  was  the  first  Englisman  from  such  a  grade  of  society  to  undertake  the 
planning  or  designing  of  country  estates.  Kent,  one  of  his  predecessors, 
was  a  coach  painter  by  trade,  who  possesed  some  artistic  taste  but  little 
culture.  "  Capability "  Brown,  Repton's  most  famous  immediate  prede- 
cessor, was  a  gardener,  who,  by  association  with  men  of  refinement  and  by 
his  tact  and  native  ability,  worked  his  way  up  to  an  honorable  position; 
but  Repton  was  a  well-educated  Englishman,  who  had  traveled  and  studied 
much..  He,  however,  called  himself  a  landscape  gardener,  as  did  all  of  the 
others  at  that  time. 

The  term  landscape  gardening  was,  I  believe,  first  used  by  the  poet 
Shenstone  to  mean  particularly  an  informal  or  picturesque  treatment  of 
the  grounds  of  an  estate,  as  distinguished  from  the  older  style  of  formal 
treatment  that  had  been  in  vogue  and  carried  to  such  excess.  In  the  early 
part  of  the  eighteenth  century  formality  had  been  pushed  to  the  point  of 
puerility,  and  assisted  to  bring  about  a  reaction.  The  "new  style,"  or 
"English  style,"  was  introduced  by  Kent  and  others,  who,  as  Sir  Horace 
Walpole  enthusiastically  exclaimed,  "leaped  the  wall  and  saw  all  nature 
was  a  garden."  These  men  made  a  practice  of  designing  country  places  in 
an  informal  or  naturalistic  manner,  and  termed  this  landscape  gardening. 
They  were  in  favor  of  abolishing  all  formality,  and  they  in  their  turn 
carried  their  theory  to  excess. 


STEPHEN  CHILD,    '88  467 

Iii  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  and  the  first  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  men  like  llepton,  came  forward,  realizing  that  formality 
had  its  place  and  value,  and  began  to  use  it  under  certain  circumstances, 
but  still  called  themselves  landscape  gardeners. 

The  English  landscape  designers  mentioned  were  engaged  almost 
exclusively  in  the  preparation  of  plans  for  country  estates.  These  were, 
of  course,  not  always  large,  and  often  were  walled  in  or  engirt  (girt  in), 
and,  therefore,  perhaps  in  a  sense  gardens.  Mr.  Olmsted  in  1856  had  to 
face  a  very  different  problem.  It  was  a  work  of  design,  a  work  that  could 
be  undertaken  and  successfully  carried  out  only  by  a  "master  artisan  in 
matters  pertaining  to  land."  Here  at  Central  Park  were  to  be  developed 
broad  peaceful  landscape  effects,  giving  opportunity  for  restful  contempla- 
tion and  relief  from  city  sights  and  sounds.  These  effects  were  to  be 
designed  and  executed  where  none  had  existed  before,  and  were  to  show  no 
obstructive  evidence  of  man's  elaborate  control.  This  was  what  Olmsted 
termed  landscape  architecture.  The  French  landscape  designers  had  already 
adopted  this  term  in  their  phrase  "  architecte  paysagiste,"  meaning  simply 
landscape  architect. 

It  is  quite  largely  the  architect  himself  who  is  responsible  for  any 
wrong  impression  that  may  have  developed  in  the  use  of  the  term  landscape 
architect ;  as  many  have  assumed  that,  because  the  word  architect  is  used 
at  all,  the  term  landscape  architect  means  simply  an  architect  who  meddles 
a  bit  with  the  landscape  immediately  surrounding  his  buildings.  Many 
architects  have  done  this,  with  regrettable  results  both  to  the  client  and  to 
the  profession  of  landscape  architecture.  I  think  it  is  but  fair  to  suggest 
that,  il:  the  architect  solves  the  problems  of  his  buildings  successfully,  he 
may  well  leave  to  the  landscape  architect  the  matter  of  designing  surround- 
ings for  them,  realizing  that  his  own  architectural  problems  are  many  and 
difficult,  and  that  the  trained  landscape  architect  can,  by  cooperating  with 
him,  greatly  improve  the  net  result;  for,  as  we  all  know,  the  effect  of  many 
a  successful  building  has  been  seriously  impaired  by  lack  of  a  proper  setting. 

Many  of  Mr.  Olmsted's  great  works  are  familiar  to  us  all.  They 
include  Central  Park,  New  York;  Prospect  Park,  Brooklyn;  the  almost 
unrivaled  Park  System  of  Boston;  the  World's  Fair  at  Chicago;  and 
almost  innumerable  country  estates,  notably  Biltmore  at  Asheville,  N".  C. 
The  great  diversity  of  this  work  shows  the  unfitness  of  applying  to  it  the 
term  landscape  gardening. 

Landscape  architecture  is  then,  as  Charles  Eliot,  one  of  Mr.  Olmsted's 
gifted  disciples,  has  well  said,  a  the  art  of  arranging  land  for  use  and  the 
accompanying  landscape  for  enjoyment."  Landscape  gardening  is  a  term 


468  LANDSCAPE  ARCHITECTUEE :    ITS  PAST  AND  PBESENT 

used,  if  at  all  properly,  simply  to  cover  that  part  of  the  landscape  architect's 
work  which  has  to  do  with  the  development  of  formal  or  natural  beauty  by 
the  simple  process  of  removing  or  setting  out  and  caring  for  plants.  This 
is  quite  secondary  to  the  matter  of  designing  a  general  scheme  for  the 
development  of  land  for  any  given  purpose. 

Our  studies  of  ancient  landscape  design  reveal  most  clearly  that  the 
principles  of  our  art  were  more  or  less  well  understood  and  followed  in  very 
early  times.  In  ancient  Egypt  even,  the  arrangement  of  the  grounds  about 
the  royal  palaces  and  other  important  buildings,  while  distinctly  temporary 
in  its  character,  is  well  preserved  to  us  in  wall  decorations  and  other 
drawings,  and  shows  many  evidences  of  thoughtfulness  in  design.  There  is 
seen  to  have  been  a  distinct  effort  to  'conform  to  the  existing  conditions  of 
flat  topography,  fertile  soil,  ample  space,  and  hot  dry  climate.  Provi- 
sion is  made  for  irrigation,  for  desirable  protecting  walls,  and  there  are 
many  evidences  of  the  fact  that  while  the  economic  motive  may  have  been 
to  a  certain  extent  present,  the  primary  one  was  agreeableness  and  pleasure. 
There  were  decorative  pavilions,  painted  walls,  sculptured  ornaments,  all 
planned  for  pleasing  effects  and  with  careful  thought  as  to  scale  and  pro- 
portion. There  was  no  particular  attempt  at  symmetry  as  a  whole,  but 
in  the  smaller  structures  and  portions  of  the  ground  symmetry  is  recognized. 
Repetition  is  effectively  used  and  a  certain  degree  of  unity  is  clearly 
expressed.  The  records  of  Mesopotamia  show  similar  thought  and  study; 
and  in  that  country  and  in  Persia  we  know  about  the  famous  hanging 
gardens  of  Babylon,  and  of  great  enclosed  hunting  parks  controlled  by  their 
more  or  less  orderly  system  of  avenues  and  paths. 

Homer's  famous  description  of  the  grounds  of  the  Palace  of  Alcinous 
depicts  their  beauty  and  shows  the  careful  study  of  such  problems  by  the 
Greeks.  No  other  people  have  ever  shown  more  thoughtfulness  in  matters 
of  design  in  the  arrangement  of  their  grounds  and  in  the  placing  of  their 
statuary  and  buildings  to  meet  the  unusual  conditions  in  topography. 
All  this  is  very  different  from  gardening,  and  in  Greece  as  in  Egypt  we  note 
the  application  of  true  principles  of  design. 

The  Roman  conquerors  brought  these  Greek  designers  of  landscape 
art  and  other  artists  to  Rome,  and  as  a  result  Roman  estates  and  villas* 
reflect  this  fine  Greek  influence.  The  greater  available  wealth  and  different 
physical  conditions  led  to  the  development  of  new  forms  of  landscape  art, 
still  evident  in  the  ruins  of  the  great  Roman  and  Pompeiian  estates  and 
gardens  that  have  descended  to  us.  Here  are  seen  not  only  the  modified 
ideas  of  Egypt  and  Greece,  but  careful  consideration  of  the  questions  of 
distant  view  and  vistas  is  now  in  evidence.  It  is  clear  that  these  designers 


STEPHEN  CHILD,   '88  469 

of  landscape  planned  to  preserve  informality  in  the  distant  grounds  with 
a  more  evident  approach  to  formality  in  the  work  directly  associated  with 
the  very  precisely  designed  palaces  and  terraces.  There  appears  a  correct 
appreciation  of  the  need  of  unity  by  a  conformity  to  the  same  architectural 
style  throughout. 

We  find  also  among  the  Romans  examples  of  the  best  and  very  earliest 
carefully  designed  city  squares  and  public  parks.  Fitness,  definiteness  of 
purpose,  a  careful  consideration  of  scale,  as  well  as  of  beauty  and  art  and 
unity,  led  to  such  results  that  to-day  to  our  great  advantage  we  may  study 
these  designs  in  connection  with  our  own  efforts  in  city  planning. 

The  habit  of  setting  aside  such  areas  for  the  recreation  of  the  people 
grew  apace,  and  the  question  of  their  distribution  throughout  the  city  was 
studied  with  care.  Under  the  Empire  the  park  areas  of  Borne  were  one- 
eighth  of  the  total  area  of  the  city. 

During  the  period  of  the  Dark  Ages  landscape  art  was  dormant. 
When  in  Mediaeval  times  the  awakening  began,  we  find  evidence  of  an  effort 
at  design  in  gardens  and  grounds  more  or  less  after  the  manner  of  the 
Greeks.  Mediaeval  designers  were  greatly  limited  in  their  opportunities; 
the  areas  dealt  with  were  necessarily  restricted  and  irregular  in  shape, 
and  both  labor  and  funds  for  such  purposes  were  lacking.  Designs  show 
an  absence  of  symmetry  except  perhaps  in  minor  details.  They  show  none 
of  that  recognition  of  axis  or  of  balance  about  an  axis,  so  notable  a  feature 
of  Roman  and  Italian  design.  Their  own  peculiar  conditions  are  well  met, 
however,  and  fitness  may  be  said  to  have  been  the  controlling  motive.  In 
these  warlike  times  security  was  first  sought  for;  pleasure  and  beauty  were 
later  considerations.  The  gardens  and  grounds  of  the  monasteries  and 
feudal  castles  were  essentially  places  of  leisure  and  contemplation  to  which 
the  high  embattled  walls  lent  an  element  of  austerity.  All  these  conditions 
made  for  simplicity,  fitness,  and  a  complete  utilization  of  every  part. 
Everything  was  compact,  neat  and  orderly.  These  were  noticeable  features 
of  English  design. 

With  the  dawn  of  the  Renaissance,  landscape  design,  in  Italy  especially, 
entered  upon  a  new  and  glorious  era.  We  begin  to  find  country  places 
designed  solely  for  enjoyment  and  the  entertainment  of  guests,  not  as 
retreats  for  protection  from  warlike  neighbors.  The  greatest  artists,  such 
as  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  Rapha?!,  and  many  others,  helped  in  the  development 
of  that  culmination  of  landscape  art,  the  Italian  villa.  The  upper  slopes 
of  a  hilly  country,  exposed  to  healthful  breezes  and  favored  with  rare  views, 
were  the  sites  chosen.  The  sloping  surfaces  led  naturally  to  the  develop^ 
ment  of  the  terrace.  While  the  Renaissance  designers  may  have  modified 


470  LANDSCAPE  ARCHITECTUBE :    ITS  PAST  AND  PEESENT 

the  topography  more  or  less,  they  never  ignored  it  as  was  doiie  in  the  earlier 
Roman  times.  Symmetry,  almost  lacking  in  the  Middle  Ages,  was  carried 
to  extremes  in  the  later  Renaissance.  Repetition  was  effectively  employed. 
The  shade  of  trees,  lawns  and  gardens,  and  an  abundant  water  supply  were 
always  in  evidence.  A  joyful  luxurious  life  was  ever  in  mind. 

The  Villas  Lanti  and  d'Este,  to  mention  only  two  of  the  more  famous, 
show  how  perfectly  every  cultivated  taste  was  developed  for  the  social 
enjoyment  of  the  wealthy  nobilit}^ 

The  later  development  of  landscape  design  in  France  and  England 
shows  to  a  more  or  less  degree  the  influence  of  the  Italian  Renaissance,  in 
France  even  more  than  in  England.  In  England  there  is  more  evidence  of 
Mediaeval  influence  and  motives.  The  Italian  villa  and  its  grounds  make 
a  single  and  very  highly  developed  unit  of  rather  limited  size,  domestic  in  its 
scale.  In  France  this  phase  of  Italian  design  was  at  first  the  accepted  type ; 
but  the  French  landscape  designers  soon  refused  to  be  bound  by  such  limita- 
tions. Their  desire  was  to  express  the  wealth  and  power  of  their  nobility 
by  the  extent  of  the  finished  grounds  of  their  palaces  and  chateaux.  They 
deviated  from  the  Mediaeval  and  Italian  designs  by  adding  unit  after  unit. 

Owing  to  the  generally  level  topography,  French  terraces  became 
broader,  areas  of  water  were  increased,  and  the  chateau  was  developed. 
The  Mediaeval  moat  was  retained  but  made  an  object  of  beauty  instead  of 
defense,  as  at  Fontainbleau  and  Chantilly.  The  highly  organized  axial 
arrangement  of  the  Italian,  school  was  retained  in  the  French  designs  but 
the  scale  was  immensely  enhanced,  was  no  longer  domestic  or  human  but 
superhuman  or  colossal,  especially  in  the  time  of  Louis  XIV,  who  firmly 
believed  he  was  more  than  human. 

Louis  XIV  employed  LeNotre  and  Mansard-  to  design  Versailles  and 
Chantilly.  The  scale  is  always  colossal.  The  purpose  was  to  express 
magnificence,  and  was  for  effect  wholly;  and  the  results,  while  grand  and 
impressive,  are  not  as  exquisitely  interesting  as  in  some  of  the  Italian  work. 

Relatively  little  of  this  grand  style  spread  elsewhere.  It  is  somewhat 
in  evidence  at  Hampton  Court  in  England;  and  Schoenbrunn,  near 
Vienna,  and  Wilhelmshohe  are  respectively  Austrian  and  German  examples 
of  its  influence.  Le  Notre's  style  is  evident  not  only  in  the  later  work  of 
Haussmann  and  Alphand  and  Andre  at  Paris,  but  to  a  certain  degree  in 
the  plans  of  L'Enfant  for  the  city  of  Washington. 

English  landscape  design  was  as  a  rule  more  human,  more  influenced 
by  Mediaeval  motives.  It  shows  less  emphasis  of  formal  motives,  and 
distinctly  less  symmetry  than  in  either  the  French  or  Italian  work,  though 
unity  is  carefully  considered. 


STEPHEN  CHILD,    '88  47.1 

French  formal  work  makes  the  gravel  paths  the  basis  of  the  design; 
and  the  parterres,  fountain  basins,  pools  and  other  details  are  laid  out  in 
subservience  to  them.  English  work  secures  its  effect  quite  differently. 
There  is  always  the  background  of  turf  and  foliage  masses,  and  the  paths 
occur  as  much  more  incidental  features. 

The  trained  landscape  architect  in  America  studies  these  earlier  prob- 
lems solely  as  a  guide  to  correct  principles,  and  it  will  be  interesting  to 
consider  some  of  the  many  classes  or  types  of  problems  in  landscape  designs 
met  with  in  American  practice,  and  note  how  we  are  helped  in  their 
solution  by  this  study  of  the  past. 

The  term  domestic  landscape  architecture  may  be  applied  to  the 
designing  of  suburban  and  country  estates  and  grounds.  Such  oppor- 
tunities occur  on  the  rugged  coasts  of  Maine,  the  tropic  sands  of  Florida, 
on  the  mountains  and  on  the  level  prairies  and  amidst  the  semi-tropic 
conditions  of  the  Pacific  Slope.  No  rules  can  be  made  to  meet  such  varied 
conditions,  but  right  basic  principles  are  of  the  utmost  importance,  and 
these  are  suggested  by  our  earlier  studies. 

In  these  domestic  problems  there  are  first  considered  the  conditions 
of  topography,  existing  vegetation,  climate,  soil,  proximity  and  direction 
of  outside  factors  affecting  the  accessibility  of  the  site;  and  second,  the 
personal  factor.  Who  is  the  home  for?  Is  it  to  be  occupied  the  entire 
year  or  only  some  part  of  it?  What  is  to  be  the  limit  of  cost?  Accessi- 
bility as  to  supplies  of  material,  water  and  so  on  are  considered.  Provision 
is  made  for  means  of  approach  both  for  guests  and  service.  Views  or 
outlook  from  the  site  and  the  aspect  of  the  finished  scheme  from  without  are 
all  studied;  and  the  proportioning  of  the  three  vital  elements  of  the 
design, — the  entrance,  the  service,  and  the  living  or  pleasure  portions  of 
the  grounds,  are  carefully  determined,  usually  the  greater  area  being 
devoted  to  the  latter.  Local  topographical  and  climatic  conditions  affect 
all  these  points  as  do  also  the  client's  desires. 

From  the  work  of  these  earlier  designers  we  get  inspiration  helping 
us  to  determine  the  general  character  of  the  special  treatment.  Shall  it 
be  formal  or  informal,  and  here  is  where  there  should  be  the  heartiest 
cooperation  between  the  client,  the  architect  of  the  buildings,  and  the 
landscape  architect,  for  manifestly  the  type  of  house  selected  should  suit  as 
well  as  fit  the  site.  While  some  sites  demand  greater  formality  than  others, 
almost  every  house,  no  matter  how  informal  its  general  character,  is  com- 
posed of  rigid  straight  lines  and  definite  angles.  There  is  therefore  almost 
always  a  demand  for  some  formality  immediately  about  such  a  structure. 
This  formality  may  not  go  so  far  as  to  involve  exact  symmetry  or  balance; 


4?2  LANDSCAPE  AKCHITECTUEE :    ITS  PAST  AND  PEESENT 

it  should,  however,  gradually  merge  into  the  more  distant  free  and  informal 
natural  surroundings  in  order  to  secure  that  unity  and  harmony  without 
which  no  design  is  successful. 

Problems  of  another  great  class  are  those  coming  under  the  general 
head  of  public  reservations,  including  greater  and  lesser  parks,  city  squares 
and  play  grounds.  Here  also  we  have  the  two  main  factors,  the  local  and 
the  personal.  But  now  we  are  dealing  with  the  public,  and  we  strive  to 
determine  the  wants  of  the  average  personality  rather  than  those  of  the 
special  or  distinctive  one.  The  Eomans  showed  us  many  vital  principles 
in  such  designs,  and  not  the  least  in  their  study  for  the  distribution  of  these 
areas  throughout  the  city. 

Definiteness  of  purpose  is  always  to  be  maintained;  the  great  country 
park  for  a  large  city  is  to  afford  perfect  relief  and  rest  from  the  sights 
and  sounds  of  city  life.  This  affects  the  choice  of  the  tract  of  land,  its 
bounds,  its  present  scenic  effect,  its  accessibility,  and  its  design  of  roads 
and  paths  by  means  of  which  the  public  may  enjoy  but  not  destroy  its 
beauties.  Among  our  best  examples  are  Central  Park  in  New  York; 
Prospect  Park  in  Brooklyn,  and  Franklin  Park  in  Boston, — all  the  work 
of  the  elder  Olmsted. 

The  distribution  of  city  parks,  squares  and  play  grounds  brings  with 
it  the  problem  of  connecting  parkways.  Perhaps  the  banks  of  a  hitherto 
neglected  sluggish  stream,  until  now  an  unsightly  dumping  ground,  can 
be  transformed  by  careful  design  into  beautiful  parkways.  Never  has  this 
been  done  better  than  in  the  case  of  the  "Riverway,"  that  part  of  Boston's 
parkway  system  leading  from  the  city  proper  to  Franklin  Park.  Beautiful 
and  natural  as  this  all  appears  now,  fifteen  or  twenty  years  ago  this  part 
of  the  town  was  one  of  its  ugliest  sights.  Now  all  is  beauty  of  the  most 
restful  sort,  but  every  particle  of  it  is  the  result  of  design.  This  is  not 
landscape  gardening,  but  landscape  architecture,  the  work  of  a  "master 
artisan  in  matters  pertaining  to  land/' 

Real  estate  allotments  and  new  town  sites  offer  vital  and  interesting 
opportunities  for  the  landscape  architect.  In  the  way  of  suggestion  much 
may  be  learned  from  the  work  along  these  lines  now  being  done  in  England 
and,  Germany.  But  the  English  Garden  Cities  and  the  German  suburban 
townsite  developments  can  again  be  copied  only  in  the  principles  involved. 
These  are  fitness,  convenience,  definiteness,  study  and  skill  in  adapting 
needs ;  to  conditions,  and  forethought  to  meet  future  demands  of  traffic, 
and  so  on. 

This  leads  up  to  and  is  in  fact  part  of  the  important  subject  of  city 
planning  which  in  general  is  one  of  great  complication  for  it  is  most 


STEPHEN  CHILD,   '88  473 

certainly  true  that  no  comprehensive  plan  can  be  made  at  any  given  time 
which  will  definitely  decide  the  problems  of  a  great  city's  growth.  Cities 
grow  and  change,  and  their  plans  must  be  constantly  modified.  Any  careful 
study  of  this  great  question,  while  it  may  solve  some  immediate  need,  such 
as  the  right  placing  and  design  of  a  civic  center,  and  its  grouping  of  public 
buildings,  must  be  relatively  tentative  and  must  by  constant  effort  and  study 
of  proposed  schemes  be  kept  up  to  date.  Certain  right  principles,  however, 
can  be  laid  down,  and  in  many  of  these  matters  the  trained  landscape  archi- 
tect can  be  of  greatest  service  in  an  advisory  capacity.  Modern  city  planners 
are  realizing  more  and  more  that  the  first  essentials  are  practicability, 
fitness,  convenience  and  beauty.  Mr.  Olmsted,  Jr.,  hag  well  expressed  this 
in  a  recent  address.  "  The  kind  of  beauty  most  to  be  sought  in  the  planning 
of  cities  is  that  which  results  from  seizing  instinctively  with  a  keen  and 
sensitive  appreciation  the  limitless  opportunities  which  present  themselves 
in  the  course  of  the  most  rigorous  practical  solution  of  any  problem/' 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  in  this  country  alone  fully  seventy  cities  are 
engaged  in  more  or  less  elaborate  studies  with  this  purpose  in  mind.  In 
Europe, great  city  planning  efforts  are  going  forward;  staid  old  London  is 
having  its  very  vitals  renovated;  Berlin  is  in  the  midst  of  similar  upheavals, 
and  Paris,  which  we  have  been  brought  to  believe  was  nearly  perfect  in  this 
respect,  is  getting  ready  to  spend  untold  millions  for  further  improvements 
of  this  sort. 

It  has  not  been  possible  within  the  necessary  limits  of  this  paper  to 
more  than  enumerate  some  of  the  salient  features  of  this  profession,  and  the 
preparation  necessary  for  its  practice.  The  aim  has  been  to  make  clear 
as  its  leaders  contend  that  landscape  architecture,  if  not  in  its  comprehen- 
siveness the  greatest  of  all  the  fine  arts,  is  at  least  one  of  them,  and  that  its 
sure  foundation  and  its  never-failing  handmaiden  is  science. 

The  greatest  painters,  sculptors,  and  composers  have  been  absolute 
masters  of  the  technique,  or  in  other  words,  the  science  of  their  particular 
art.  No  truly  fine  art  was  ever  developed  without  a  complete  mastery  of 
its  technique.  Many  of  the  old  masters  spent  years  of  patient  study  in 
the  preparation  of  their  colors  alone.  It  is  true  that  this  technique  must 
never  be  allowed  to  master  art.  We  know  how  thoroughly  Michael  Angelo 
studied  anatomy,  and  how  some  of  his  later  work  was  marred  by  his  evident 
desire  to  have  it  show  his  complete  knowledge  of  the  most  minute  details 
of  anatomical  conditions.  Success  in  any  art  is  to  be  attained  through  a 
knowledge  of  its  principles  and  facts  or  what  may  be  called  its  scientific 
data,  but  this  knowledge  must  be  held  in  complete  subordination  to  the 
highest  aesthetic  consideration  before  perfection  can  be  reached. 


474  LANDSCAPE  ARCHITECTURE :    ITS  PAST  AND  PEESENT 

ThtTol'orc  \vc  sliiily  thu  ]>asl  ;  llu'ivl'mr  we  require  the  most  careful 
preliminary  investigations  and  the  preparation  of  accurate  scientifically 
prepared  topographical  plans  or  we  cannot  work  successfully.  Fitness 
and  practicability  are  always  to  be  considered  first.  Alphand  and  Andre 
in  France,  and  Major  L'Enfant  in  his  preparation  of  that  masterpiece  of 
landscape  architecture,  the  plans  for  the  city  of  "Washington,  and  that 
great  master  of  the  art,  the  elder  Olmsted,  all  had  rigid  scientific  training, 
and  they  never  forgot  its  principles.  The  value  of  this  association  of  art 
and  science  is  well  expressed  by  Mr.  Olmsted :  "  The  demands  of  beauty 
are  in  a  large  measure  identical  with  efficiency  and  economy,  and  regard  for 
beauty  neither  follows  after  regard  for  the  practical  ends  to  be  obtained 
nor  precedes  it,  but  must  inseparably  accompany  it/'  So  must  we  follow 
in  their  footsteps,  not  as  copyists  or  imitators  but  as  thorough  conscientious 
students  of  principles.  How  great  shall  be  the  benefit  to  mankind,  when 
in  this  art  which  so  vitally  affects  humanity,  all  its  problems  shall  be  solved 
in  the  right  spirit;  a  true  blending  of  art  and  science. 


SOME  PHASES  OF  MODERN  ARCHITECTURAL  PRACTICE. 

WALTER  H.  KILHAM,  '89, 
Architect,  Boston. 

ALL  important  matters  associated  with  the  business  side  of  architecture 
have  become  pretty  definitely  understood  both  by  the  members  of  that 
profession  and  by  the  public.  It  is  sometimes  profitable,  however,  to 
discuss  the-  familiar  points  that  arise  in  the  daily  office  routine,  and  perhaps 
gain  a  new  point  of  view,  or  a  better  grasp  of  some  of  the  less  firmly 
established  principles. 

The  direction  of  complicated  operations  by  the  busy  modern  architect 
requires,  in  addition  to  professional  knowledge  and  skill,  a  considerable 
amount  of  executive  ability  in  placing  before  the  builder  in  clear  and 
definite  form  the  directions  necessary  for  the  successful  execution  of  the 
work  and  at  the  same  time  keeping  the  owner  fully  informed  as  to  the 
character  of  every  part  of  the  building  which  is  under  construction. 

An  architect's  principal  duties  are  threefold:  he  designs  buildings 
and  produces  clear  and  intelligible  working  drawings  and  specifications; 
he  obtains  tenders  from  contractors  and  arranges  the  letting  of  the  con- 
tracts; he  secures  proper  execution  of  the  work  and  certifies  as  to  the 
amounts  due  to  the  contractor  from  time  to  time  under  the  contract. 

Proper  fulfilment  of  these  duties  is  impossible  unless  the  architect 
has  at  his  disposal  a  business  machine  or  "  system  "  so  well  adjusted  and 
lubricated  that  its  methods  of  operation  will  never  make  itself  evident  either 
to  the  clients  or  contractors  who  do  business  with  the  office.  This  system 
must  work  so  well  that  every  drawing,  sketch,  letter  or  memorandum  will 
always  be  producible  at  a  moment's  notice;  nothing  must  ever  be  for- 
gotten from  a  specification;  no  mistake  occur  in  a  certificate,  and  no 
"  extra "  or  "  changed "  work  be  done  except  on  a  special  order  counter- 
signed by  the  owner  prior  to  its  execution. 

To  carry  out  the  above,  the  filing  system  should  be  simple  and  efficient 
and  free. from  all  unnecessary  complication..  The  stationery  of  the  office, 
blanks,  forms,  etc.,  should  be  of  uniform  size  or  at  least  of  sizes  to  fit  the 
standard  filing  cases.  Drawings  can  be  kept  flat  in  drawers,  and  great 

475 


476  PfiASES  OF  MODERN  ARCHITECTURAL  PRACTICE 

convenience  results  from  adopting  standard  sizes  of  sheets  and  making 
"  full  sizes "  whenever  possible  on  bond  paper  or  "  Alba "  from  which 
blue  prints  can  be  readily  taken.  The  convenience  of  this  system  extends 
also  to  the  contractor's  shanty,  where  fewer  valuable  drawings  would  be  lost 
if  it  were  easier  to  keep  them  in  a  neat  pile. 

Every  floor  plan  should  show  the  points  of  the  compass,  and  every 
column,  pier,  window,  room,  space  and  electric  outlet  should  be  numbered 
on  the  plans  according  to  a  relative  system;  thus  column  42,  on  the 
second  floor,  should  be  called  column  2-4:2;  room  23,  on  the  sixth  floor, 
should  be  known  as  room  623,  and  so  on.  It  is  far  easier  to  refer  in 
a  letter  to  pier  3-16  than  to  say  "the  second  pier  from  the  southwest  corner 
on  the  third  floor,"  and  simplicity  is  the  essence  of  all  building  operations. 
Extras  and  deductions  will  occur  in  every  building  operation.  This  fact 
must  be  recognized  and  means  taken  to  meet  it  in  a  businesslike  way. 
Have  special  order  blanks  printed  and  numbered  in  triplicate.  Let  each 
one  have  a  blank  space  large  enough  to  contain  a  clear  definition  of  the 
work  to  be  done  or  to  be  omitted  and  the  agreed  price,  with  a  notice  to  the 
effect  that  the  order  shall  not  be  considered  valid  until  signed  by  all  three 
parties, — owner,  contractor,  and  architect.  This  takes  time,  sometimes 
several  days,  but  the  architect  should  insist  upon  the  signatures  even  if  the 
work  stops.  The  three  copies  allow  each  party  to  retain  one  for  his  files. 
1  believe  it  is  well  to  have  certain  general  clauses  of  the  specification  printed 
in  fine  type  at  the  bottom  of  the  order  to  assure  the  relation  of  the  extni 
or  changed  work  to  the  general  contract. 

One  of  the  most  constant  cares  of  an  architect  is  to  make  sure  that  the 
owner  understands  clearly  what  result  is  to  be  brought  about  by  the  plans 
and  specifications.  The  ability  to  read  plans  and  understand  technical 
wording  is  given  to  few,  and  the  difference  between  paints  and  stains, 
"water  struck"  and  "common"  brick,  "rift"  and  "heart  rift"  must 
ever  remain  a  sealed  book  to  the  majority  of  the  laity.  Add  to  this  the 
multiplicity  of  misleading  trade  adjectives,  such  as  "double  thick"  glass, 
which  the  unfortunate  client  will  generally  read  and  expect  the  thickest 
of  French  plate,  or  "standard"  thickness  of  slate,  which  means  the 
thinnest  (why  is  "  Standard "  or  "  First  quality "  always  used  to  mean 
the  poorest  grade?)  and  the  care  which  devolves  upon  the  architect  to 
properly  inform  his  client  becomes  quite  considerable.  All  this  care  must 
be  taken,  however,  as  part  of  the  day's  work,  and  vigilance  of  this  sort  must 
never  slacken. 

Disappointment  sometimes  ensues,  not  through  any  particular  fault  of 
the  work,  but  from  faulty  drafting  of  the  specifications  or  contract  f equir- 


WALTEK  H.  K1LHAM,   '89  477 

ing  impossible  performance  from  the  contractor.  For  example,  architects 
have  for  years  been  accustomed  to  insert  at  the  beginning  of  their  specifica- 
tions a  clause  stating  that  no  sub-contractors  shall  be  employed  except  such 
as  are  approved  by  the  architect.  This  clause,  which  is  necessary  to  prevent 
portions  of  the  work  being  let  to  irresponsible  or  disagreeable  sub-con- 
tractors, should  be  followed  by  a  clause  stating  that  a  list  of  the  proposed 
sub-contractors  shall  be  enclosed  with  the  bid  which  is  stated  to  be  based 
on  such  sub-proposals.  If  then  it  is  decided  to  use  a  different  sub- 
contractor, the  difference  between  his  bid  and  the  one  used  as  a  basis  of 
estimate  should  be  added  to  the  contract  price  then  and  there.  The  ideal 
way  is  really  for  all  sub-bids  to  ^e  sent  to  the  architect,  who  selects  the 
lowest  received  from  reputable  concerns  and  sends  them  to  the  contractors. 

General  clauses  are  in  many  cases  an  unexpected  disappointment.  It 
is  of  little  use  to  say,  "  All  the  painter's  work  must  be  done  in  the  best  and 
most  thorough  manner  known  to  the  painting  and  finishing  trade,"  when 
you  only  expect  a  three-coat  job  for  a  low-priced  building.  Neither  should 
the  contractor  be  required  to  guarantee  a  piece  of  work  for  which  an 
elaborate  specification  has  been  written.  Either  let  him  do  it  his  way, 
if  he  is  to  guarantee  it,  or  have  him  do  the  work  your  way  and  it  will  not 
need  any  guarantee  if  you  are  sure  of  your  ground.  The  average  contractor 
will  sign  anything  that  may  be  put  into  his  contract,  but  he  is  apt  to  think 
that  in  the  last  analysis,  even  if  the  contract  makes  the  architect  the 
sole  arbiter  of  every  detail,  the  courts  cannot  be  ousted  and  that  he  will  be 
able  to  force  a  payment,  even  without  a  final  certificate  from  the  architect: 

The  building  contract  often  provides  for  certificates  by  the  architect 
at  various  stages  that  the  work  done  is  in  accordance  with  specifications, 
which  throws  the  responsibility  on  the  architect  for  determining  that 
fact.  The  attempt  is  sometimes  made  to  avoid  that  responsibility  by 
inserting  a  clause  to  the  effect  that  said  certificates  shall  in  no  way  lessen 
the  total  and  final  responsibility  of  the  contractor.  Such  a  clause,  however, 
does  not  authorize  the  architect  to  furnish  a  certificate  that  the  work  has 
been  done  in  accordance  with  the  specifications  if  in  any  particular  he  has 
reason  to  believe  the  contrary,  for  the  courts  have  construed  the  above 
language  to  apply  only  to  deficiencies  afterward  discovered. 

The  practice  of  specifying  materials  by  their  trade  names  is  a  dan- 
gerous one.  If  a  contractor,  for  instance,  supplied  a  cement  of  a  specified 
brand  and  the  lot  was  found  worthless,  he  might,  through  some  loophole, 
try  to  evade  the  liability.  It  is  usual  to  specify,  rather,  that  the  cement 
shall  conform  to  the  requirements  of  the  American  Society  of  Civil  Engin- 
eers, It  is  worth  noting,  however^  that  some  cements  behave  much  better 


478  PHASES  OF  MODERN  ARCHITECTURAL  PRACTICE 

in  frosty  weather  than  others,  and  this  ought  to  be  taken  into  account 
in  carrying  on  masonry  work  in  the  winter  time. 

So  much  for  a  few  of  the  ordinary  aspects  of  the  ordinary  verbiage 
and  specifications.  A  much  wider  subject  is  the  designing  and  specifying 
of  the  materials  of  which  a  building  is  constructed,  in  such  a  way  as  to 
bring  about  the  desired  results  with  minimum  of  cost  and  in  a  minimum 
amount  of  time.  Most  buildings  are  wanted  complete  by  the  owners  in  an 
incredibly  short  time  after  their  acceptance  of  the  plans,  and  every  means 
should  be  taken  by  the  architect  to  simplify  the  task  of  the  contractor. 
Much  time  can  be  saved  in  the  erection  of  a  building  if  none  of  the 
different  materials  which  constitute  the  structure  be  specified  for  use  in 
the  early  stages  of  the  work  whicli  will  cause  delay  on  account  of  processes 
of  manufacture.  For  example,  ornamental  terra  cotta  should  not  be  speci- 
fied for  any  part  of  the  construction  where  it  will  be  wanted  within  sir 
weeks  of  the  date  of  signing  the  contract,  for  it  is  rarely  that  a  shipment  of 
this  material  ever  arrives  on  the  site  in  less  than  that  time  after  the  order 
for  it  is  placed.  In  ordinary  buildings,  therefore,  some  more  easily  procur- 
able material  should  always  be  used  for  the  trimmings  up  to  the  first  floor 
level. 

Another  point,  somewhat  less  generally  understood,  is  the  reduction  as 
far  as  possible  of  the  number  of  operations  involved  in  the  construction  of 
a  building.  Take,  for  example,  the  case  of  a  public  building;  in  many 
buildings  of  this  sort  it  has  been  a  common  custom  to  use  brick  work,  steel 
frame  and  terra  cotta  block  filling,  galvanized  iron  and  even  reinforced 
concrete,  in  construction  of  the  walls,  flues,  and  partitions,  of  one  and  the 
same  building,  each  done  by  a  different  gang  of  workmen,  with  a  different 
Hub-foreman.  In  our  experience  we  have  found  that  in  most  cases  the  same 
gang  of  bricklayers  under  the  same  foreman  has  carried  out  the  whole 
construction  in  brick  at  a  saving  which  sometimes  has  amounted  to  one 
cent  per  cubic  foot  on  the  entire  building.  There  is  no  loss  of  time  between 
the  departure  of  one  gang  and  the  arrival  of  another,  and  no  waste  of  odd 
lots  of  unused  material,  and  the  building  is  a  homogeneous  whole. 

The  above  are  a  few  suggestions  for  the  smooth  and  pleasant  conduct 
of  an  ordinary  architect's  business.  It  only  remains  to  be  added  that  no 
human  machine  will  operate  for  very  long  without  attention,  and  no  system 
however  perfected  will  work  successfully  without  constant  oversight.  An 
American  sage  has  said  that  "The  doors  of  opportunity  are  marked 
'  Push '  and  '  Pull '."  The  successful  architect  has  generally  found,  how- 
ever, that  to  the  above  will  have  to  be  added  the  legends  Progressiveness. 
Punctuality,  and  Prudence,  and  "then  as  many  more  as  constantly  suggest 


WALTEB  H.  KILHAA1,   '89  479 

themselves.  But  no  time  spared  from  the  harassing  daily  duties  of  a 
modern  architect  will  yield  better  results  than  that  spent  in  the  perfecting 
of  a  system  which  shall  help  to  keep  the  varied  interests  of  builders  and 
owners  directed  toward  the  quick  and  efficient  securing  of  the  results  which 
both  are  seeking. 


THE  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT  UNITE. 

LUZERNE  S.  COWLES,  '97, 
Assistant  Designing  Engineer,  Boston  Elevated  Ry.  Co. 

ENGINEERING  and  architecture  were  not  in  the  beginning  dissociated, 
but  the  tendency  in  the  United  States  to  keep  them  widely  separated  has 
until  recently  been  decidedly  marked.  That  this  tendency  has  proved  a 
detriment  to  the  proper  aesthetic  development  of  our  communities  cannot  be 
denied. 

In  ancient  times  the  architect  was  his  own  engineer.  Inasmuch  as 
the  exact  science  of  figuring  stresses  and  strains  was  unknown,  judgment 
and  precedent  were  governing  features  in  the  design  of  structures.  There 
was  little  haste  in  completing  a  project  once  commenced,  and  artistic  treat- 
ment requiring  much  time  and  labor  was  rendered  possible. 

A  century  ago  engineers  were  either  military  or  civil,  the  civil  engineer 
being  chiefly  occupied  with  surveying.  The  architect  seldom  required  the 
services  of  an  engineer  except  in  the  capacity  of  surveyor.  Sizes  of 
members  for  building  construction  were  usually  determined  by  "rule  of 
thumb,"  such  determination  being  strictly  an  architectural  or  builder's 
problem. 

As  time  went  on  the  art  of  bridge  building  with  materials  other  than 
stone  was  gradually  developed.  The  somewhat  primeval  state  of  this 
country  was  such  that  the  demand  for  anything  more  than  utilitarian  was 
seldom  expressed.  To  keep  pace  with  the  rapid  growth  of  the  railroads 
and  other  projects,  the  expense  incurred  by  the  erection  of  even  the  cheapest 
classes  of  structures  consistent  with  good  design,  was  necessarily  very 
great.  The  public  demanded  as  a  rule  service,  caring  little  for  appearance. 

The  adoption  of  the  cheaper  methods  of  construction  no  doubt  accel- 
erated the  growth  and  development  of  the  country  at  large.  Although  the 
Government  was  financially  able  to  erect  elaborate  structures,  public  service 
corporations  and  the  like,  constantly  confronted  with  heavy  charges  for 
construction  and  equipment,  were  compelled  to  limit  the  cost  of  their 
structures  frequently  at  the  expense  of  appearance. 

Municipalities  have  proved  many  times  to  be  grave  offenders  in  this 
respect.  To  satisfy  urgent  demands  the  erection  of  hideous  structures  has 

480 


LUZERNE  S.  COWLES,   '97  481 

been  permitted  with  slight  hesitancy.  This  radical  spirit  recently  asserted 
itself  in  the  otherwise  conservative  city  of  Eome.  A  steel  bridge  was 
erected  over  the  Tiber  in  the  midst  of  an  atmosphere  utterly  antagonistic 
to  this  type  of  structure.  The  excuse  for  such  a  blot  on  the  landscape  was, 
no  doubt,  that  an  iron  strcture  could  be  built  cheaply  and  quickly  and 
would  be  at  best  but  temporary.  The  word  temporary  in  connection  with 
a  structure  may  mean  three  years  or  thirty.  Many  an  eyesore  has  been 
permitted  on  the  plea  of  its  temporary  nature  when  with  a  little  patience 
and  persistence  on  the  part  of  the  public  a  first-class  permanent  structure 
would  have  been  assured. 

Coupled  with  the  increasing  wealth  and  population  of  the  larger  cities 
of  the  United  States  there  appears  at  the  present  time  from  public  and 
press  alike,  the  demand  for  rational  civic  improvement  along  harmonious 
and  well  defined  lines.  To-day,  while  the  architect  may  consider  the 
engineer  somewhat  inartistic,  he  does  not  hesitate  to  consult  him  on  all 
matters  where  engineering  judgment  is  desired.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
engineer  may  consider  the  architect  at  times  extravagant,  nevertheless  he 
consults  him  freely,  with  the  result  that  certain  structures,  particularly 
when  constructed  of  metal,  are  vastly  improved  in  appearance. 

It  is  obvious  that  some  types  of  engineering  structures  are  hardly 
suited  to  much  adornment.  Adorning  construction  should  at  all  times  be 
fostered,  but  constructing  ornamentation  can  scarcely  be  advocated. 

An  elevated  structure,  for  example,  ugly  from  its  very  nature,  could 
only  be  considered  in  the  premises  as  a  violation  of  real  art.  To  construct 
much  ornament  for  such  a  structure  would  not  ameliorate  conditions  in 
any  ordinary  case.  To  quote  a  well  known  western  architect : 

"  True  architecture  is  construction  carried  to  the  highest  point  of 
development  without  the  necessary  addition  of  any  elements  foreign  to  its 
own  conditions  of  stability  and  strength.  Structure  cannot  be  elevated 
into  the  domain  of  art  merely  by  the  application  of  ornaments.  Ornament 
is  contributory  to  a  work  of  art  and  not  essential  to  it.  A  Cistercian  abbey 
has  no  ornament,  but  its  rank  as  a  work  of  art  is  as  high  as  that  of  a 
Clunisian  abbey  which  abounds  in  the  richest  decorative  accessories.  Cer- 
tainly the  true  function  of  ornament  is  not  to  conceal  or  obscure  construc- 
tion, but  to  illustrate  it. 

"It  is  the  misfortune"  of  the  engineer  that  he  is  dealing  with  a  strictly 
mechanical  problem,  and  is  therefore  constrained  to  use  materials  and 
methods  which  have  as  yet  never  been  developed  in  the  direction  of  that 
more  perfect  union  which  really  constitutes  the  essential  qualities  of  grace 
and  beauty/' 


482  THE  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT   UNITE 

Engineers  should  foster  the  spirit  of  close  cooperation  with  architects,, 
and  the  public  of  our  large  cities  has  a  right  to  expect  the  erection  of 
bridges  and  other  structures  which  will  be  an  ornament  rather  than  a  detri- 
ment to  their  city.  Such  results  will  be  attained  if  the  public  demands 
them  and  our  cities  will  tend  to  become  more  attractive  in  every  way. 

The  necessity  for  engineers  to  consult  architects  on  all  important 
work  is  coming  to  be  too  well  recognized  to  require  special  emphasis. 

Examination  of  many  structures  might  lead  to  the  conclusion  that 
many  engineers  endeavor  to  avoid  beauty  in  their  construction.  Messrs. 
Carrere  and  Hastings,  architects,  appeared  to  share  in  this  belief  in  a 
recently  published  communication  in  which  they  write  as  follows : 

"In  general,  engineering  works  do  not  aim  at  beauty,  and  we  think 
that  this  is  always  a  great  misfortune.  Any  engineering  work  is  a  spot  in 
the  landscape,  or  in  the  city,  which  has  either  a  good  or  bad  influence  on 
the  general  appearance  of  the  panorama,  and  upon  its  enjoyment. 

"  The  fact  that  the  first  aim  of  every  work  of  engineering  is  practical, 
that  the  essential  qualities  are  strength,  simplicity  and  economy  of  cost 
and  of  operation,  leads  many  very  able  engineers  to  the  conclusion  that 
they  fail  in  these  qualities  in  the  degree  in  which  they  may  be  artistic ;  and 
for  this  reason  many  of  them  are  not  only  indifferent,  but  are  opposed  to 
having  their  work  beautiful. 

"  We  believe  that  the  great  difficulty  is  due  to  the  fact  that  engineers, 
not  having  been  trained  in  matters  of  art,  do  not  conceive  or  plan  their 
structures  artistically.  They  should  seek  the  advice  of  the  architect  at  the 
very  start,  so  that  the  entire  work  may  be  designed  and  constructed  on 
artistic  lines,  which  may  even  make  the  use  of  ornament  absolutely  unnec- 
essary, or  may  make  it  of  so  little  importance  that  it  may  be  almost  bad, 
and  the  structure  still  be  beautiful." 

Private  individuals  assume  the  right  to  erect  almost  any  type  of  build- 
ing provided  the  local  building  laws  are  in  a  measure  complied  with.  Little 
regard  for  the  feelings  of  one's  neighbors  is  frequently  shown.  Public 
service  corporations  are  beginning  to  realize  the  importance  of  erecting 
only  first-class  structures,  perfect  not  only  from  an  engineering  but  an 
architectural  standpoint.  The  Pennsylvania  railroad  station  in  New  York 
and  the  Forest  Hills  terminal  of  the  elevated  railway  in  Boston  are  typical 
examples  of  the  combined  efforts  of  the  engineer  and  architect. 

The  same  cooperation  is  desirable  in  the  construction  of  bridges.  The 
original  bridge  was  the  fallen  tree  of  the  aboriginal,  surely  more  agreeable 
to  look  upon  than  some  modern  efforts.  One  frequently  considers  the 
engineer  as  the  sole  person  to  consult  in  the  construction  of  a  bridge. 


LUZERNE  S.  COWLES,  '97  483 

•«% 

Exceptionally  pleasing  results  have,  however,  been  obtained  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  nine  span  masonry  arch  bridge  crossing  the  Connecticut 
River  at  Hartford  and  the  eleven  span  steel  arch  bridge  over  the  Charles 
River  between  Boston  and  Cambridge.  This  was  rendered  possible  by  the 
•close  union  of  engineer  and  architect. 

This  close  association  has  many  advantages  other  than  the  gain  in 
aesthetics.  The  architect  after  such  association  plans  his  work  so  as  to 
make  the  arrangement  of  his  supporting  structure  perhaps  more  orderly 
than  might  otherwise  obtain.  The  engineer  endeavors  to  plan  his  work  so 
that  the  architect  may  have  ample  freedom  to  exercise  his  art.  Their  com- 
bined efforts  redound  to  the  advantage  of  their  employer  whether  munici- 
pality, corporation  or  individual,  the  result  being  the  best  possible  under 
the  particular  conditions  involved.  It  is  only  by  the  close  union  so  fre- 
quently noted  to-day  that  results  most  favorable  to  the  public  at  large  may 
be  obtained. 

Many  architects'  offices  now  employ  an  architectural  engineer,  while 
any  large  engineering  office  surely  requires  the  services  of  at  least  one  man 
well  versed  in  the  general  principles  of  architecture. 

The  alliance  of  engineer  and  architect  ensures  better  structures  with 
possibly  a  more  orderly  arrangement  and  frequently  a  saving  in  material 
and  labor.  This  result  is  a  distinct  advantage  to  the  community  as  it 
means  economical  construction  together  with  an  aesthetic  treatment  of 
what  might  otherwise  be  unsightly  or  commonplace. 


MILL  CONSTRUCTION  WITH  STEEL  PEAME  AND  TILE  WALLS 

By  JOHN  O.  DE  WOLF,  '90 
Mill  Engineer,  Boston 

IN  designing  a  new  building  for  a  manufacturing  plant  recently,  the 
writer  made  a  study  of  different  styles  of  mill  construction  to  determine 
that  most  suitable  and  economical  for  the  conditions  under  consideration. 
The  plant  already  had  buildings  of  slow-burning  mill  construction  and  of 
reinforced  concrete,  each  of  which  served  its  purpose  admirably.  As  there 
was  no  need  of  duplicating  the  construction  or  appearance  of  the  existing 
buildings,  the  way  was  clear  for  the  erection  of  whatever  seemed  best. 

After  studying  the  problem  and  making  estimates  on  several  types 
of  construction  it  was  decided  to  use  plank  and  timber  floors,  wooden 
columns,  a  steel  outside  frame,  and  walls  of  hollow  tile  plastered  on  the 
outside.  Concrete  pilasters  were  to  be  used  outside  of  the  steel  columns 
of  the  frame.  The  result  of  this  construction  was  so  satisfactory  that  the 
writer  believes  a  description  of  it  may  prove  of  interest. 

The  building  is  three  stories  in  height,  with  a  basement,  and  is 
designed  to  permit  the  addition  of  a  fourth  story  if  desired  at  some  future 
time.  As  it  was  erected  on  filled  land,  piles  were  necessary.  The  founda- 
tions are  of  reinforced  concrete,  designed  to  serve  as  a  retaining  wall  for 
the  basement  as  well  as  a  support  to  the  structure  above.  These  walls  were 
carried  a  little  above  grade.  Bolts  were  set  in  them  to  anchor  the  steel 
columns. 

The  basement  height  is  10  ft.  from  floor  to  floor  and  the  height  of  each 
of  the  other  stories  is  15  ft.  The  floors  were  designed  for  about  100  Ibs.  per 
square  foot,  live  load,  and  the  floor  beams  are  two  8x16  in.  hard  pine 
timbers  bolted  together.  Bays  are  9  ft.  3  ins.  in  width  and  the  span  of  the 
timbers  is  24  ft.  The  main  floor  is  of  4-inch  plank,  splined  and  covered 
with  %-inch  maple  flooring.  Round  wooden  columns  were  used  with  cast- 
iron  caps  and  pintles.  In  general  the  interior  of  the  building  follows  the 
familiar  lines  of  slow-burning  mill  construction. 

The  outside  frame  of  the  building  was  made  of  built-up  channel-iron 

484 


JOHN  O.  DE  WOLF,    '90  485 

columns  and  horizontal  angle-irons  tying  the  columns  together  and  forming 
lintels  over  all  door  and  window  openings.  In  designing  the  columns 
special  attention  was  given  to  adapting  them  to  receive  the  tile  curtain  walls 
and  the  concrete  that  was  to  form  the  pilasters. 

Ample  light  was  desired  in  the  building,  and  the  windows  were  made 
about  6  ft.  11  ins.  wide  by  11  ft.  3  ins.  high,  outside  measurements  of  the 
frame.  They  are  of  the  mullion  type  with  swinging  transoms  and  double 
hung  sash,  each  sash  having  nine  lights  of  11  x  15  in.  glass,  and  each  tran- 
som six  lights,  11  x  14  ins. 

Hollow,  hard-burned  tile  were  used  for  the  curtain  walls.  All  were 
6  ins.  thick  and  most  of  them  were  12  ins.  square  on  the  face,  but  some  half- 
size  tile,  6  x  12  ins.,  were  used.  All  were  smooth  on  one  side  and  grooved 
with  dovetailed  grooves  on  the  outer  face.  An  important  consideration  in 
the  column  design  was  the  use  of  such  size  of  channels  as  would  suitably 
receive  the  tile  walls.  As  tile  6  ins.  thick  were  to  be  used  they  fitted  well 
into  8  ins.  channels,  and  the  latter  gave  proper  strength  for  the  loads  to 
be  carried. 

Instead  of  following  the  standard  practice  as  to  the  distance  apart  of 
the  channels  forming  the  columns,  this  distance  was  varied  a  little  in  order 
that  the  tile  should  fill  the  space  between  the  columns  without  cutting.  The 
proper  length  for  this  was  provided  by  a  variation  in  the  width  of  the  win- 
dow mullions  or  in  the  width  of  the  columns,  and  the  design  was  so  worked 
out  as  to  fit  the  two  sizes  of  tile  previously  referred  to.  Great  attention 
was  paid  to  this  detail,  as  it  was  not  intended  to  plaster  the  building  on  the 
inside,  and  it  was  realized  that  any  cutting  of  the  tiles  would  probably 
appear  unsightly  and  would  also  add  to  the  expense  of  the  construction. 

Over  all  window  and  door  openings  angle-iron  lintels  were  placed  to 
support  the  tile  and  prevent  its  bearing  on  the  window  or  door  frames. 
These  lintels  were  riveted  to  the  columns,  and  thus  securely  tied  together  all 
of  the  steel  work. 

In  designing  the  building  it  was  desired  to  use  pilastered  construction. 
The  pilasters  were  to  be  of  concrete  and  to  enter  into,  and  form  part  of,  the 
steel  columns.  In  order  to  do  this  the  channel-iron  columns  were  made 
with  plates  on  the  inside  of  the  building  and  lattice  work  on  the  outside. 
The  plates  on  the  inside  give  a  smooth  appearance  and  obviate  the  necessity 
of  wooden  forms  to  retain  the  concrete  when  pouring  it. 

The  only  forms  required  for  the  concrete  pilasters  were  on  the  outside. 
The  pilasters  are  20  ins.  wide  and  project  4  ins.  beyond  the  face  of  the  cur- 
tain walls.  As  the  outside  of  the  columns  were  latticed,  the  concrete 
entered  and  filled  them,  and  added  materially  to  their  strength.  The  out- 


486  STEEL  FKAME  AND  TILE  WALL  MILL  CONSTEUCTION 

side  finish  on  the  tile  walls  is  cement  plaster  applied  directly  to  the  grooved 
surface  which  gives  it  a  secure  hold. 

After  completion  and  painting  the  inside  of  the  building  presented  a 
finished  appearance.  Most  of  the  tiles  being  12  ins.  square,  the  walls  show 
a  uniformity  in  surface,  divided  into  12-in.  sections  in  place  of  the  cus- 
tomary small  sections  in  brick  walls.  Each  column  projects  inward  from 
the  curtain  walls  about  1%  ins.  and  is  studded  with  rows  of  rivets  at  its 
edges.  Under  each  window  is  seen  the  window  sill,  which  is  of  rein- 
forced concrete  6  ins.  thick.  These  sills  were  cast  of  such  shape  that  on 
the  inside  of  the  wall  they  are  the  same  length  as  the  window  opening,  but 
on  the  outside  they  are  enough  longer  to  receive  the  finish  at  the  sides  of 
the  window. 

These  steel,  tile  and  concrete  walls  compared  with  heavy  brick  walls 
show  economy  in  the  cost  of  construction  and  a  greater  amount  of  avail- 
able floor  space.  In  this  building  each  of  the  three  main  floors  is  of  the 
same  size,  and  there  is  no  increase  in  the  thickness  of  the  walls  at  the  lower 
story.  At  the  pilasters  the  total  thickness  is  only  about  12  ins.  The  air 
spaces  in  the  tile  walls  prove  excellent  non-conductors  of  heat,  and  form  a 
wall  that  was  found  well  adapted  for  economical  heating. 

This  building  is  not  being  used  for  rapid-running  machinery,  but  the 
use  of  a  steel  frame  with  concrete  pilasters  in  connection  with  the  columns 
would  undoubtedly  give  all  the  rigidity  that  would  be  necessary  for  any 
ordinary  manufacturing  purpose,  and  this  construction  would  seem  to  have 
many  uses  in  industrial  buildings. 


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